System.Data.SQLite

Changes On Branch trunk
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Changes In Branch trunk Excluding Merge-Ins

This is equivalent to a diff from 555d0d530d to 61617d740c

2025-01-27
18:08
Add the ability to build in VS2022 using the Setup/build_vs_2022.bat script to the 1.0.119.0 release. Leaf check-in: 0b34025625 user: drh tags: branch-119
2025-01-24
15:23
Include the steps for Mono as well. Leaf check-in: 61617d740c user: mistachkin tags: trunk
15:17
Improve build documentation so it includes the explicit steps for building on POSIX compliant operating systems. check-in: 8b5928fbf5 user: mistachkin tags: trunk
2010-11-24
14:29
Remove a duplicate DLL whose name differs only in case. check-in: 7f9e634bf5 user: drh tags: trunk
2010-08-15
22:10
Fix guid type Closed-Leaf check-in: 555d0d530d user: rmsimpson tags: sourceforge
2010-08-11
16:17
Updates for take and skip check-in: fc483e780a user: rmsimpson tags: sourceforge

Added .fossil-settings/binary-glob.














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*.bmp
*.chm
*.db
*.dll
*.exe
*.gif
*.gz
*.lib
*.msi
*.pdb
*.png
*.resources
*.snk
*.zip
Added .fossil-settings/crnl-glob.

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*
Added .fossil-settings/encoding-glob.

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Tests/data/testlinq.out
Added .fossil-settings/ignore-glob.











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Externals/Eagle/bin/net5/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/net6/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netCore20/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netCore30/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/x64/Spilornis.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/x86/Spilornis.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/Eagle*.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/x64/Spilornis.pdb
Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/x86/Spilornis.pdb
Targets/SQLite.NET.Settings.targets.netFx40.user
Added Doc/Extra/Core/images/sqlite370_banner.gif.

cannot compute difference between binary files

Added Doc/Extra/Core/json1.html.







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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<div class=fancy>
<div class=nosearch>
<div class="fancy_title">
JSON Functions And Operators
</div>
<div class="fancy_toc">
<a onclick="toggle_toc()">
<span class="fancy_toc_mark" id="toc_mk">&#x25ba;</span>
Table Of Contents
</a>
<div id="toc_sub"><div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#overview">1. Overview</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#compiling_in_json_support">2. Compiling in JSON Support</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#interface_overview">3. Interface Overview</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#json_arguments">3.1. JSON arguments</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#jsonb">3.2. JSONB</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#the_jsonb_format">3.2.1. The JSONB format</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#handling_of_malformed_jsonb">3.2.2. Handling of malformed JSONB</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#path_arguments">3.3. PATH arguments</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#value_arguments">3.4. VALUE arguments</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#compatibility">3.5. Compatibility</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#json5_extensions">3.6. JSON5 Extensions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#performance_considerations">3.7. Performance Considerations</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_blob_input_bug">3.8. The JSON BLOB Input Bug</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#function_details">4. Function Details</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_function">4.1. The json() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_function">4.2. The jsonb() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_array_function">4.3. The json_array() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_array_function">4.4. The jsonb_array() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_array_length_function">4.5. The json_array_length() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_error_position_function">4.6. The json_error_position() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_extract_function">4.7. The json_extract() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_extract_function">4.8. The jsonb_extract() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_and_operators">4.9. The -> and ->> operators</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_insert_json_replace_and_json_set_functions">4.10. The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_insert_jsonb_replace_and_jsonb_set_functions">4.11. The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace, and jsonb_set() functions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_object_function">4.12. The json_object() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_object_function">4.13. The jsonb_object() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_patch_function">4.14. The json_patch() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_patch_function">4.15. The jsonb_patch() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_pretty_function">4.16. The json_pretty() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_remove_function">4.17. The json_remove() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_remove_function">4.18. The jsonb_remove() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_type_function">4.19. The json_type() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_valid_function">4.20. The json_valid() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_quote_function">4.21. The json_quote() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#array_and_object_aggregate_functions">4.22. Array and object aggregate functions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_each_and_json_tree_table_valued_functions">4.23. The json_each() and json_tree() table-valued functions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#examples_using_json_each_and_json_tree_">4.23.1. Examples using json_each() and json_tree()</a></div>
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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>
<p>
By default, SQLite supports thirty functions and two operators for
dealing with JSON values.  There are also two <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a>
that can be used to decompose a JSON string.

</p><p>
There are twenty-six scalar functions and operators:

</p><ol>
<li value='1'>
<a href='#jmini'>json</a>(<i>json</i>)
</li>

<li value='2'>
<a href='#jminib'>jsonb</a>(<i>json</i>)
</li>

<li value='3'>
<a href='#jarray'>json_array</a>(<i>value1</i>,<i>value2</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='4'>
<a href='#jarrayb'>jsonb_array</a>(<i>value1</i>,<i>value2</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='5'>
<a href='#jarraylen'>json_array_length</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jarraylen'>json_array_length</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>)
</li>

<li value='6'>
<a href='#jerr'>json_error_position</a>(<i>json</i>)
</li>

<li value='7'>
<a href='#jex'>json_extract</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='8'>
<a href='#jexb'>jsonb_extract</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='9'>
<i>json</i> <a href='#jptr'>-></a> <i>path</i>
</li>

<li value='10'>
<i>json</i> <a href='#jptr'>->></a> <i>path</i>
</li>

<li value='11'>
<a href='#jins'>json_insert</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='12'>
<a href='#jinsb'>jsonb_insert</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='13'>
<a href='#jobj'>json_object</a>(<i>label1</i>,<i>value1</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='14'>
<a href='#jobjb'>jsonb_object</a>(<i>label1</i>,<i>value1</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='15'>
<a href='#jpatch'>json_patch</a>(<i>json</i>1,json2)
</li>

<li value='16'>
<a href='#jpatchb'>jsonb_patch</a>(<i>json</i>1,json2)
</li>

<li value='17'>
<a href='#jpretty'>json_pretty</a>(<i>json</i>)
</li>

<li value='18'>
<a href='#jrm'>json_remove</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='19'>
<a href='#jrmb'>jsonb_remove</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='20'>
<a href='#jrepl'>json_replace</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='21'>
<a href='#jreplb'>jsonb_replace</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='22'>
<a href='#jset'>json_set</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='23'>
<a href='#jsetb'>jsonb_set</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...)
</li>

<li value='24'>
<a href='#jtype'>json_type</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jtype'>json_type</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>)
</li>

<li value='25'>
<a href='#jvalid'>json_valid</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jvalid'>json_valid</a>(<i>json</i>,flags)
</li>

<li value='26'>
<a href='#jquote'>json_quote</a>(<i>value</i>)
</li>


</ol>

<p>There are four <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate SQL functions</a>:

</p><ol>
<li value='27'>
<a href='#jgrouparray'>json_group_array</a>(<i>value</i>)
</li>

<li value='28'>
<a href='#jgrouparrayb'>jsonb_group_array</a>(<i>value</i>)
</li>

<li value='29'>
<a href='#jgroupobject'>json_group_object</a>(<i>label</i>,<i>value</i>)
</li>

<li value='30'>
<a href='#jgroupobjectb'>jsonb_group_object</a>(name,<i>value</i>)
</li>


</ol>

<p>The two <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a> are:

</p><ol>
<li value='31'>
<a href='#jeach'>json_each</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jeach'>json_each</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>)
</li>

<li value='32'>
<a href='#jtree'>json_tree</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jtree'>json_tree</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>)
</li>


</ol>



<style>
.jans {color: #050;}
.jex {color: #025;}
</style>


<a name="howtocompile"></a>

<h1 id="compiling_in_json_support"><span>2. </span>Compiling in JSON Support</h1>

<p>
The JSON functions and operators are built into SQLite by default,
as of SQLite version 3.38.0 (2022-02-22).  They can be omitted
by adding the -DSQLITE_OMIT_JSON compile-time option.  Prior to
version 3.38.0, the JSON functions were an extension that would only
be included in builds if the -DSQLITE_ENABLE_JSON1 compile-time option
was included.  In other words, the JSON functions went from being
opt-in with SQLite version 3.37.2 and earlier to opt-out with
SQLite version 3.38.0 and later.

</p><h1 id="interface_overview"><span>3. </span>Interface Overview</h1>

<p>
SQLite stores JSON as ordinary text.
Backwards compatibility constraints mean that SQLite is only able to
store values that are NULL, integers, floating-point numbers, text,
and BLOBs.  It is not possible to add a new "JSON" type.


</p><h2 id="json_arguments"><span>3.1. </span>JSON arguments</h2>

<p>
For functions that accept JSON as their first argument, that argument
can be a JSON object, array, number, string, or null.  SQLite numeric
values and NULL values are interpreted as JSON numbers and nulls, respectively.
SQLite text values can be understood as JSON objects, arrays, or strings.
If an SQLite text value that is not a well-formed JSON object, array, or
string is passed into JSON function, that function will usually throw
an error.  (Exceptions to this rule are <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid()</a>,
<a href="json1.html#jquote">json_quote()</a>, and <a href="json1.html#jerr">json_error_position()</a>.)

</p><p>
These routines understand all
<a href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8259.txt">rfc-8259 JSON syntax</a>
and also <a href="https://spec.json5.org/">JSON5 extensions</a>.  JSON text
generated by these routines always strictly conforms to the
<a href="https://json.org">canonical JSON definition</a> and does not contain any JSON5
or other extensions.  The ability to read and understand JSON5 was added in
version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16).
Prior versions of SQLite would only read canonical JSON.

<a name="jsonbx"></a>

</p><h2 id="jsonb"><span>3.2. </span>JSONB</h2>

<p>
Beginning with version 3.45.0 (2024-01-15), SQLite allows its
internal "parse tree" representation of JSON to be stored on disk,
as a BLOB, in a format that we call "JSONB".  By storing SQLite's internal
binary representation of JSON directly in the database, applications
can bypass the overhead of parsing and rendering JSON when reading and
updating JSON values.  The internal JSONB format also uses slightly
less disk space then text JSON.

</p><p>
Any SQL function parameter that accepts text JSON as an input will also
accept a BLOB in the JSONB format.  The function will operate the
same in either case, except that it will run faster when
the input is JSONB, since it does not need to run the JSON parser.

</p><p>
Most SQL functions that return JSON text have a corresponding function
that returns the equivalent JSONB.  The functions that return JSON
in the text format begin with "<tt>json_</tt>" and functions that
return the binary JSONB format begin with "<tt>jsonb_</tt>".

</p><h3 id="the_jsonb_format"><span>3.2.1. </span>The JSONB format</h3>

<p>
JSONB is a binary representation of JSON used by SQLite and
is intended for internal use by SQLite only.  Applications
should not use JSONB outside of SQLite nor try to reverse-engineer the
JSONB format.

</p><p>
The "JSONB" name is inspired by <a href="https://postgresql.org">PostgreSQL</a>, but the
on-disk format for SQLite's JSONB is not the same as PostgreSQL's.
The two formats have the same name, but are not binary compatible.
The PostgreSQL JSONB format claims to offer O(1)
lookup of elements in objects and arrays.  SQLite's JSONB format makes no
such claim.  SQLite's JSONB has O(N) time complexity for
most operations in SQLite, just like text JSON.  The advantage of JSONB in
SQLite is that it is smaller and faster than text JSON - potentially several
times faster. There is space in the
on-disk JSONB format to add enhancements and future versions of SQLite might
include options to provide O(1) lookup of elements in JSONB, but no such
capability is currently available.

</p><h3 id="handling_of_malformed_jsonb"><span>3.2.2. </span>Handling of malformed JSONB</h3>

<p>
The JSONB that is generated by SQLite will always be well-formed.  If you
follow recommended practice and
treat JSONB as an opaque BLOB, then you will not have any problems.  But
JSONB is just a BLOB, so a mischievous programmer could devise BLOBs
that are similar to JSONB but that are technically malformed.  When
misformatted JSONB is feed into JSON functions, any of the following
might happen:

</p><ul>
<li><p>
The SQL statement might abort with a "malformed JSON" error.

</p></li><li><p>
The correct answer might be returned, if the malformed parts of
the JSONB blob do not impact the answer.

</p></li><li><p>
A goofy or nonsensical answer might be returned.
</p></li></ul>

<p>
The way in which SQLite handles invalid JSONB might change
from one version of SQLite to the next.  The system follows
the garbage-in/garbage-out rule:  If you feed the JSON functions invalid
JSONB, you get back an invalid answer.  If you are in doubt about the
validity of our JSONB, use the <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid()</a> function to verify it.

</p><p>
We do make this one promise:
Malformed JSONB will never cause a memory
error or similar problem that might lead to a vulnerability.
Invalid JSONB might lead to crazy answers,
or it might cause queries to abort, but it won't cause a crash.

<a name="jsonpath"></a>

</p><h2 id="path_arguments"><span>3.3. </span>PATH arguments</h2>

<p>
For functions that accept PATH arguments, that PATH must be well-formed or
else the function will throw an error.
A well-formed PATH is a text value that begins with exactly one
'$' character followed by zero or more instances
of ".<i>objectlabel</i>" or "&#91;<i>arrayindex</i>&#93;".

</p><p>
The <i>arrayindex</i> is usually a non-negative integer <i>N</i>.  In
that case, the array element selected is the <i>N</i>-th element
of the array, starting with zero on the left.
The <i>arrayindex</i> can also be of the form "<b>#-</b><i>N</i>"
in which case the element selected is the <i>N</i>-th from the
right.  The last element of the array is "<b>#-1</b>".  Think of
the "#" characters as the "number of elements in the array".  Then
the expression "#-1" evaluates to the integer that corresponds to 
the last entry in the array.  It is sometimes useful for the array
index to be just the <b>#</b> character, for example when appending
a value to an existing JSON array:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_set('[0,1,2]','$[#]','new')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[0,1,2,"new"]'</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="varg"></a>

</p><h2 id="value_arguments"><span>3.4. </span>VALUE arguments</h2>

<p>
For functions that accept "<i>value</i>" arguments (also shown as
"<i>value1</i>" and "<i>value2</i>"),
those arguments are usually understood
to be literal strings that are quoted and become JSON string values
in the result.  Even if the input <i>value</i> strings look like 
well-formed JSON, they are still interpreted as literal strings in the
result.

</p><p>
However, if a <i>value</i> argument comes directly from the result of another
JSON function or from <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a> (but not <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a>),
then the argument is understood to be actual JSON and
the complete JSON is inserted rather than a quoted string.

</p><p>
For example, in the following call to json_object(), the <i>value</i>
argument looks like a well-formed JSON array.  However, because it is just
ordinary SQL text, it is interpreted as a literal string and added to the
result as a quoted string:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex','[52,3.14159]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"ex":"[52,3.14159]"}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',('[52,3.14159]'->>'$'))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"ex":"[52,3.14159]"}'</span></li>

</ul>


</p><p>
But if the <i>value</i> argument in the outer json_object() call is the
result of another JSON function like <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a>, then
the value is understood to be actual JSON and is inserted as such:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',json('[52,3.14159]'))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',json_array(52,3.14159))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex','[52,3.14159]'->'$')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li>

</ul>


</p><p>
To be clear: "<i>json</i>" arguments are always interpreted as JSON
regardless of where the value for that argument comes from.  But
"<i>value</i>" arguments are only interpreted as JSON if those arguments
come directly from another JSON function or <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a>.

</p><p>
Within JSON value arguments interpreted as JSON strings, Unicode escape
sequences are not treated as equivalent to the characters or escaped
control characters represented by the expressed Unicode code point.
Such escape sequences are not translated or specially treated; they
are treated as plain text by SQLite's JSON functions.

</p><h2 id="compatibility"><span>3.5. </span>Compatibility</h2>

<p>
The current implementation of this JSON library uses a recursive descent
parser.  In order to avoid using excess stack space, any JSON input that has
more than 1000 levels of nesting is considered invalid.   Limits on nesting
depth are allowed for compatible implementations of JSON by
<a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc8259#section-9">RFC-8259 section 9</a>.

<a name="json5"></a>

</p><h2 id="json5_extensions"><span>3.6. </span>JSON5 Extensions</h2>

<p>
Beginning in version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16), these routines will
read and interpret input JSON text that includes
<a href="https://spec.json5.org/">JSON5</a> extensions.  However, JSON text generated
by these routines will always be strictly conforming to the 
<a href="https://json.org">canonical definition of JSON</a>.

</p><p>
Here is a synopsis of JSON5 extensions (adapted from the
<a href="https://spec.json5.org/#introduction">JSON5 specification</a>):

</p><ul>
<li> Object keys may be unquoted identifiers.
</li><li> Objects may have a single trailing comma.
</li><li> Arrays may have a single trailing comma.
</li><li> Strings may be single quoted.
</li><li> Strings may span multiple lines by escaping new line characters.
</li><li> Strings may include new character escapes.
</li><li> Numbers may be hexadecimal.
</li><li> Numbers may have a leading or trailing decimal point.
</li><li> Numbers may be "Infinity", "-Infinity", and "NaN".
</li><li> Numbers may begin with an explicit plus sign.
</li><li> Single (//...) and multi-line (/*...*/) comments are allowed.
</li><li> Additional white space characters are allowed.
</li></ul>

<p>
To convert string X from JSON5 into canonical JSON, invoke
"<a href="json1.html#jmini">json(X)</a>".  The output of the "<a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a>" function will be canonical
JSON regardless of any JSON5 extensions that are present in the input.
For backwards compatibility, the <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid(X)</a> function without a
"flags" argument continues
to report false for inputs that are not canonical JSON, even if the
input is JSON5 that the function is able to understand.  To determine
whether or not an input string is valid JSON5, include the 0x02 bit
in the "flags" argument to json_valid:  "<tt>json_valid(X,2)</tt>".

</p><p>
These routines understand all of JSON5, plus a little more.
SQLite extends the JSON5 syntax in these two ways:

</p><ol>
<li><p>
Strict JSON5 requires that
unquoted object keys must be ECMAScript 5.1 IdentifierNames.  But large
unicode tables and lots of code is required in order to determine whether or
not a key is an ECMAScript 5.1 IdentifierName.  For this reason,
SQLite allows object keys to include any unicode characters
greater than U+007f that are not whitespace characters.  This relaxed
definition of "identifier" greatly simplifies the implementation and allows
the JSON parser to be smaller and run faster.

</p></li><li><p>
JSON5 allows floating-point infinities to be expressed as
"<tt>Infinity</tt>", "<tt>-Infinity</tt>", or "<tt>+Infinity</tt>"
in exactly that case - the initial "I" is capitalized and all other
characters are lower case.  SQLite also allows the abbreviation "<tt>Inf</tt>"
to be used in place of "<tt>Infinity</tt>" and it allows both keywords
to appear in any combination of upper and lower case letters.
Similarly,
JSON5 allows "NaN" for not-a-number.  SQLite extends this to also allow
"QNaN" and "SNaN" in any combination of upper and lower case letters.
Note that SQLite interprets NaN, QNaN, and SNaN as just an alternative
spellings for "null".
This extension has been added because (we are told) there exists a lot
of JSON in the wild that includes these non-standard representations
for infinity and not-a-number.
</p></li></ol>


<h2 id="performance_considerations"><span>3.7. </span>Performance Considerations</h2>

<p>
Most JSON functions do their internal processing using JSONB.  So if the
input is text, they first most translate the input text into JSONB.
If the input is already in the JSONB format, no translation is needed,
that step can be skipped, and performance is faster.

</p><p>
For that reason,
when an argument to one JSON function is supplied by another
JSON function, it is usually more efficient to use the "<tt>jsonb_</tt>"
variant for the function used as the argument.  

</p><ul>
<li>
  <tt>... json_insert(A,'$.b',json(C)) ...</tt>
  &nbsp; &larr; Less efficient.
</li><li>
  <tt>... json_insert(A,'$.b',jsonb(C)) ...</tt>
  &nbsp; &larr; More efficient.
</li></ul>


<p>
The <a href="json1.html#jgroupobjectb">aggregate JSON SQL functions</a> are an exception to this rule.  Those
functions all do their processing using text instead of JSONB.  So for the
aggregate JSON SQL functions, it is more efficient for the arguments
to be supplied using "<tt>json_</tt>" functions than "<tt>jsonb_</tt>"
functions.

</p><ul>
<li>
  <tt>... json_group_array(json(A))) ...</tt>
  &nbsp; &larr; More efficient.
</li><li>
  <tt>... json_group_array(jsonb(A))) ...</tt>
  &nbsp; &larr; Less efficient.
</li></ul>

<a name="jblobbug"></a>

<h2 id="the_json_blob_input_bug"><span>3.8. </span>The JSON BLOB Input Bug</h2>

<p>If a JSON input is a BLOB that is not JSONB and that looks like
text JSON when cast to text, then it is accepted as text JSON.
This is actually a long-standing bug in the original implementation
that the SQLite developers were unaware of.  The documentation stated
that a BLOB input to a JSON function should raise an error.  But in the
actual implementation, the input would be accepted as long
as the BLOB content was a valid JSON string in the text encoding of
the database.

</p><p>This JSON BLOB input bug was accidentally fixed when the JSON routines
were reimplemented for the 3.45.0 release (2024-01-15).
That caused breakage in applications that had come to depend on the old
behavior.  (In defense of those applications:  they were often lured into
using BLOBs as JSON by the <a href="cli.html#fileio">readfile()</a> SQL function
available in the <a href="cli.html">CLI</a>.  Readfile() was used to read JSON from disk files,
but readfile() returns a BLOB.  And that worked for them, so why not just
do it?)

</p><p>For backwards compatibility,
the (formerly incorrect) legacy behavior of interpreting BLOBs as text JSON
if no other interpretation works
is hereby documented and is be officially supported in 
version 3.45.1 (2024-01-30) and all subsequent releases.

</p><h1 id="function_details"><span>4. </span>Function Details</h1>

<p>The following sections provide additional detail on the operation of
the various JSON functions and operators:

<a name="jmini"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_function"><span>4.1. </span>The json() function</h2>

<p>The json(X) function verifies that its argument X is a valid
JSON string or JSONB blob and returns a minified version of that JSON string
with all unnecessary whitespace removed.  If X is not a well-formed
JSON string or JSONB blob, then this routine throws an error.

</p><p>If the input is JSON5 text, then it is converted into canonical
RFC-8259 text prior to being returned.

</p><p>If the argument X to json(X) contains JSON objects with duplicate
labels, then it is undefined whether or not the duplicates are
preserved.  The current implementation preserves duplicates.
However, future enhancements
to this routine may choose to silently remove duplicates.

</p><p>
Example:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json(' { "this" : "is", "a": [ "test" ] } ')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"this":"is","a":["test"]}'</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jminib"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_function"><span>4.2. </span>The jsonb() function</h2>

<p>The jsonb(X) function returns the binary JSONB representation
of the JSON provided as argument X.  An error is raised if X is
TEXT that does not have valid JSON syntax.

</p><p>If X is a BLOB and appears to be JSONB,
then this routine simply returns a copy of X.
Only the outer-most element of the JSONB input is examined, however.
The deep structure of the JSONB is not validated.

<a name="jarray"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_array_function"><span>4.3. </span>The json_array() function</h2>

<p>The json_array() SQL function accepts zero or more arguments and
returns a well-formed JSON array that is composed from those arguments.
If any argument to json_array() is a BLOB then an error is thrown.

</p><p>An argument with SQL type TEXT is normally converted into a quoted 
JSON string.  However, if the argument is the output from another json1
function, then it is stored as JSON.  This allows calls to json_array()
and <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a> to be nested.  The <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> function can also
be used to force strings to be recognized as JSON.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,2,'3',4)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,2,"3",4]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array('[1,2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '["[1,2]"]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array(json_array(1,2))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[[1,2]]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,null,'3','[4,5]','{"six":7.7}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,null,"3","[4,5]","{\"six\":7.7}"]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,null,'3',json('[4,5]'),json('{"six":7.7}'))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,null,"3",[4,5],{"six":7.7}]'</span></li>

</ul>



<a name="jarrayb"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_array_function"><span>4.4. </span>The jsonb_array() function</h2>

<p>The jsonb_array() SQL function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a>
function except that it returns the constructed JSON array in the
SQLite's private JSONB format rather than in the standard
RFC 8259 text format.

<a name="jarraylen"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_array_length_function"><span>4.5. </span>The json_array_length() function</h2>

<p>The json_array_length(X) function returns the number of elements
in the JSON array X, or 0 if X is some kind of JSON value other
than an array.  The json_array_length(X,P) locates the array at path P
within X and returns the length of that array, or 0 if path P locates
an element in X that is not a JSON array, and NULL if path P does not
locate any element of X.  Errors are thrown if either X is not 
well-formed JSON or if P is not a well-formed path.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 4</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]', '$')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 4</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]', '$[2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 0</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 0</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}', '$.one')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 3</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}', '$.two')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>



<a name="jerr"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_error_position_function"><span>4.6. </span>The json_error_position() function</h2>

<p>The json_error_position(X) function returns 0 if the input X is a
well-formed JSON or JSON5 string.  If the input X contains one or more
syntax errors, then this function returns the character position of the
first syntax error.  The left-most character is position 1.

</p><p>If the input X is a BLOB, then this routine returns 0 if X is
a well-formed JSONB blob.  If the return value is positive, then it
represents the <i>approximate</i> 1-based position in the BLOB of the
first detected error.

</p><p>
The json_error_position() function was added with
SQLite version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16).


<a name="jex"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_extract_function"><span>4.7. </span>The json_extract() function</h2>

<p>The json_extract(X,P1,P2,...) extracts and returns one or more 
values from the
well-formed JSON at X.  If only a single path P1 is provided, then the
SQL datatype of the result is NULL for a JSON null, INTEGER or REAL
for a JSON numeric value, an INTEGER zero for a JSON false value,
an INTEGER one for a JSON true value, the dequoted text for a 
JSON string value, and a text representation for JSON object and array values.
If there are multiple path arguments (P1, P2, and so forth) then this
routine returns SQLite text which is a well-formed JSON array holding
the various values.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c[2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"f":7}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c[2].f')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 7</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}','$.c','$.a')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[[4,5],2]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}','$.c[#-1]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 5</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.x')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.x', '$.a')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[null,2]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":"xyz"}', '$.a')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'xyz'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":null}', '$.a')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>


</p><p>There is a subtle incompatibility between the json_extract() function
in SQLite and the json_extract() function in MySQL.  The MySQL version
of json_extract() always returns JSON.  The SQLite version of
json_extract() only returns JSON if there are two or more PATH arguments
(because the result is then a JSON array) or if the single PATH argument
references an array or object.  In SQLite, if json_extract() has only
a single PATH argument and that PATH references a JSON null or a string
or a numeric value, then json_extract() returns the corresponding SQL
NULL, TEXT, INTEGER, or REAL value.

</p><p>The difference between MySQL json_extract() and SQLite json_extract()
really only stands out when accessing individual values within the JSON
that are strings or NULLs.  The following table demonstrates the difference:

</p><center>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<tr><th>Operation</th><th>SQLite Result</th><th>MySQL Result
</th></tr><tr><td>json_extract('{"a":null,"b":"xyz"}','$.a')</td><td>NULL</td><td>'null'
</td></tr><tr><td>json_extract('{"a":null,"b":"xyz"}','$.b')</td><td>'xyz'</td><td>'"xyz"'
</td></tr></table></center>

<a name="jexb"></a>

<h2 id="the_jsonb_extract_function"><span>4.8. </span>The jsonb_extract() function</h2>

<p>
The jsonb_extract() function works the same as the <a href="json1.html#jex">json_extract()</a> function,
except in cases where json_extract() would normally return a text
JSON array object, this routine returns the array or object in the
JSONB format.  For the common case where a text, numeric, null, or
boolean JSON element is returned, this routine works exactly the same
as json_extract().


<a name="jptr"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_and_operators"><span>4.9. </span>The -> and ->> operators</h2>

<p>Beginning with SQLite version 3.38.0 (2022-02-22), the ->
and ->> operators are available for extracting subcomponents of JSON.
The SQLite implementation of -> and ->> strives to be
compatible with both MySQL and PostgreSQL.
The -> and ->> operators take a JSON string or JSONB blob
as their left operand and a PATH expression or object field
label or array index as their right operand.  The -> operator
returns a text JSON representation of the selected subcomponent or
NULL if that subcomponent does not exist.  The ->> operator returns
an SQL TEXT, INTEGER, REAL, or NULL value that represents the selected
subcomponent, or NULL if the subcomponent does not exist.

</p><p>Both the -> and ->> operators select the same subcomponent
of the JSON to their left.  The difference is that -> always returns a
JSON representation of that subcomponent and the ->> operator always
returns an SQL representation of that subcomponent.  Thus, these operators
are subtly different from a two-argument <a href="json1.html#jex">json_extract()</a> function call.
A call to json_extract() with two arguments will return a JSON representation
of the subcomponent if and only if the subcomponent is a JSON array or
object, and will return an SQL representation of the subcomponent if the
subcomponent is a JSON null, string, or numeric value.

</p><p>When the -> operator returns JSON, it always returns the
RFC 8565 text representation of that JSON, not JSONB.  Use the
<a href="json1.html#jexb">jsonb_extract()</a> function if you need a subcomponent in the
JSONB format.

</p><p>The right-hand operand to the -> and ->> operators can
be a well-formed JSON path expression.  This is the form used by MySQL.
For compatibility with PostgreSQL,
the -> and ->> operators also accept a text object label or
integer array index as their right-hand operand.
If the right operand is a text
label X, then it is interpreted as the JSON path '$.X'.  If the right
operand is an integer value N, then it is interpreted as the JSON path '$[N]'.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> 'c'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c[2]'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"f":7}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c[2].f'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '7'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' ->> '$.c[2].f'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 7</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> 'c' -> 2 ->> 'f'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 7</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}' -> '$.c[#-1]'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '5'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.x'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'[11,22,33,44]' -> 3</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '44'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'[11,22,33,44]' ->> 3</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 44</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":"xyz"}' -> '$.a'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '"xyz"'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":"xyz"}' ->> '$.a'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'xyz'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":null}' -> '$.a'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'null'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>'{"a":null}' ->> '$.a'</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jins"></a>

<a name="jrepl"></a>

<a name="jset"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_insert_json_replace_and_json_set_functions"><span>4.10. </span>The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions</h2>

<p>The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions all take
a single JSON value as their first argument followed by zero or more
pairs of path and value arguments, and return a new JSON string formed
by updating the input JSON by the path/value pairs.  The functions
differ only in how they deal with creating new values and overwriting
preexisting values.

</p><center>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th>Function</th><th>Overwrite if already exists?</th><th>Create if does not exist?
</th></tr><tr>
<td>json_insert()</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">Yes
</td></tr><tr>
<td>json_replace()</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">No
</td></tr><tr>
<td>json_set()</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">Yes
</td></tr></table></center>

<p>The json_insert(), json_replace(), and json_set() functions always
take an odd number of arguments.  The first argument is always the original
JSON to be edited.  Subsequent arguments occur in pairs with the first
element of each pair being a path and the second element being the value
to insert or replace or set on that path.

</p><p>Edits occur sequentially from left to right.  Changes caused by
prior edits can affect the path search for subsequent edits.

</p><p>If the value of a path/value pair is an SQLite TEXT value, then it
is normally inserted as a quoted JSON string, even if the string looks
like valid JSON.  However, if the value is the result of another
json function (such as <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a>)
or if it is the result of <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a>,
then it is interpreted as JSON and is inserted as JSON retaining all
of its substructure.  Values that are the result of <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a>
are always interpreted as TEXT and are inserted as a JSON string even
if they look like valid JSON.

</p><p>These routines throw an error if the first JSON argument is not
well-formed or if any PATH argument is not well-formed or if any
argument is a BLOB.

</p><p>To append an element onto the end of an array, using json_insert()
with an array index of "#".  Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_insert('[1,2,3,4]','$[#]',99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,2,3,4,99]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_insert('[1,[2,3],4]','$[1][#]',99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,[2,3,99],4]'</span></li>

</ul>


</p><p>Other examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_insert('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_insert('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":4,"e":99}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_replace('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":99,"c":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_replace('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":99,"c":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":4,"e":99}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', '[97,96]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":"[97,96]"}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', json('[97,96]'))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":[97,96]}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', json_array(97,96))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":[97,96]}'</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jinsb"></a>

<a name="jreplb"></a>

<a name="jsetb"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_insert_jsonb_replace_and_jsonb_set_functions"><span>4.11. </span>The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace, and jsonb_set() functions</h2>

<p>The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace(), and jsonb_set() functions work the
same as <a href="json1.html#jins">json_insert()</a>, <a href="json1.html#jrepl">json_replace()</a>, and <a href="json1.html#jset">json_set()</a>, respectively,
except that "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" versions return their result in the binary
JSONB format.

<a name="jobj"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_object_function"><span>4.12. </span>The json_object() function</h2>

<p>The json_object() SQL function accepts zero or more pairs of arguments
and returns a well-formed JSON object that is composed from those arguments.
The first argument of each pair is the label and the second argument of
each pair is the value.
If any argument to json_object() is a BLOB then an error is thrown.

</p><p>The json_object() function currently allows duplicate labels without
complaint, though this might change in a future enhancement.

</p><p>An argument with SQL type TEXT it is normally converted into a quoted 
JSON string even if the input text is well-formed JSON.  
However, if the argument is the direct result from another JSON
function or <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a> (but not <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a>), 
then it is treated as JSON and all of its JSON type information
and substructure is preserved.  This allows calls to json_object()
and <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a> to be nested.  The <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> function can also
be used to force strings to be recognized as JSON.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c',4)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c','{e:5}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":"{e:5}"}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c',json_object('e',5))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":2,"c":{"e":5}}'</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jobjb"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_object_function"><span>4.13. </span>The jsonb_object() function</h2>

<p>
The jsonb_object() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a> function
except that the generated object is returned in the binary JSONB format.

<a name="jpatch"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_patch_function"><span>4.14. </span>The json_patch() function</h2>

<p>The json_patch(T,P) SQL function runs the
<a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7396">RFC-7396</a> MergePatch algorithm
to apply patch P against input T.  The patched copy of T is returned.

</p><p>MergePatch can add, modify, or delete elements of a JSON Object,
and so for JSON Objects, the json_patch() routine is a generalized
replacement for <a href="json1.html#jset">json_set()</a> and <a href="json1.html#jrm">json_remove()</a>.  However, MergePatch
treats JSON Array objects as atomic.  MergePatch cannot append to an
Array nor modify individual elements of an Array.  It can only insert,
replace, or delete the whole Array as a single unit.  Hence, json_patch()
is not as useful when dealing with JSON that includes Arrays,
especially Arrays with lots of substructure.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":1,"b":2}','{"c":3,"d":4}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":[1,2],"b":2}','{"a":9}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":9,"b":2}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":[1,2],"b":2}','{"a":null}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"b":2}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":1,"b":2}','{"a":9,"b":null,"c":8}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":9,"c":8}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":{"x":1,"y":2},"b":3}','{"a":{"y":9},"c":8}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"a":{"x":1,"y":9},"b":3,"c":8}'</span></li>

</ul>



<a name="jpatchb"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_patch_function"><span>4.15. </span>The jsonb_patch() function</h2>

<p>
The jsonb_patch() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jpatch">json_patch()</a> function
except that the patched JSON is returned in the binary JSONB format.

<a name="jpretty"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_pretty_function"><span>4.16. </span>The json_pretty() function</h2>
<p>
The json_pretty() function works like <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> except that it adds
extra whitespace to make the JSON result easier for humans to read.
The first argument is the JSON or JSONB that is to be pretty-printed.
The optional second argument is a text string that is used for indentation.
If the second argument is omitted or is NULL, then indentation is four
spaces per level.
</p><p>
The json_pretty() function was added with SQLite version 3.46.0 
(2024-05-23).

<a name="jrm"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_remove_function"><span>4.17. </span>The json_remove() function</h2>

<p>The json_remove(X,P,...) function takes a single JSON value as its
first argument followed by zero or more path arguments.
The json_remove(X,P,...) function returns
a copy of the X parameter with all the elements 
identified by path arguments removed.  Paths that select elements
not found in X are silently ignored.

</p><p>Removals occurs sequentially from left to right.  Changes caused by
prior removals can affect the path search for subsequent arguments.

</p><p>If the json_remove(X) function is called with no path arguments,
then it returns the input X reformatted, with excess whitespace
removed.

</p><p>The json_remove() function throws an error if the first argument
is not well-formed JSON or if any later argument is not a well-formed
path.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[0,1,3,4]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[2]','$[0]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,3,4]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[0]','$[2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,2,4]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[#-1]','$[0]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1,2,3]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"x":25,"y":42}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$.z')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"x":25,"y":42}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$.y')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '{"x":25}'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jrmb"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_jsonb_remove_function"><span>4.18. </span>The jsonb_remove() function</h2>
<p>
The jsonb_remove() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jrm">json_remove()</a> function
except that the edited JSON result is returned in the binary JSONB format.

<a name="jtype"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_type_function"><span>4.19. </span>The json_type() function</h2>

<p>The json_type(X) function returns the "type" of the outermost element
of X.  The json_type(X,P) function returns the "type" of the element
in X that is selected by path P.  The "type" returned by json_type() is
one of the following SQL text values:
'null', 'true', 'false', 'integer', 'real', 'text', 'array', or 'object'.
If the path P in json_type(X,P) selects an element that does not exist
in X, then this function returns NULL.

</p><p>The json_type() function throws an error if its first argument is
not well-formed JSON or JSONB or if its second argument is not a well-formed
JSON path.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'object'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'object'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'array'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[0]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'integer'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[1]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'real'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[2]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'true'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[3]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'false'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[4]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'null'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[5]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 'text'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[6]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jvalid"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_valid_function"><span>4.20. </span>The json_valid() function</h2>

<p>The json_valid(X,Y) function return 1 if the argument X is well-formed
JSON, or returns 0 if X is not well-formed.  The Y parameter is an integer
bitmask that defines what is meant by "well-formed".  The following bits
of Y are currently defined:

</p><ul>
<li> <b>0x01</b> &rarr;
The input is text that strictly complies with canonical RFC-8259 JSON,
without any extensions.
</li><li> <b>0x02</b> &rarr;
The input is text that is JSON with <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> extensions described above.
</li><li> <b>0x04</b> &rarr;
The input is a BLOB that superficially appears to be <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>.
</li><li> <b>0x08</b> &rarr;
The input is a BLOB that strictly conforms to the internal <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> format.
</li></ul>

<p>By combining bits, the following useful values of Y can be derived:

</p><ul>
<li> <b>1</b> &rarr; X is RFC-8259 JSON text
</li><li> <b>2</b> &rarr; X is <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> text
</li><li> <b>4</b> &rarr; X is probably <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
</li><li> <b>5</b> &rarr; X is RFC-8259 JSON text or <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
</li><li> <b>6</b> &rarr; X is <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> text or <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
     &larr; <i>This is probably the value you want</i>
</li><li> <b>8</b> &rarr; X is strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
</li><li> <b>9</b> &rarr; X is RFC-8259 or strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
</li><li> <b>10</b> &rarr; X is JSON5 or strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>
</li></ul>

<p>The Y parameter is optional. If omitted, it defaults to 1, which means
that the default behavior is to return true only if the input X is
strictly conforming RFC-8259 JSON text without any extensions.  This
makes the one-argument version of json_valid() compatible with older
versions of SQLite, prior to the addition of support for
<a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> and <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>.

</p><p>The difference between 0x04 and 0x08 bits in the Y parameter is that
0x04 only examines the outer wrapper of the BLOB to see if it superficially
looks like <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>.  This is sufficient for must purposes and is very fast.
The 0x08 bit does a thorough examination of all internal details of the BLOB.
The 0x08 bit takes time that is linear in the size of the X input and is much
slower.  The 0x04 bit is recommended for most purposes.

</p><p>If you just want to know if a value is a plausible input to one of
the other JSON functions, a Y value of 6 is probably what you want to use.

</p><p>Any Y value less than 1 or greater than 15 raises an error, for the
latest version of json_valid().  However, future versions of json_valid()
might be enhanced to accept flag values outside of this range, having new
meanings that we have not yet thought of.

</p><p>If either X or Y inputs to json_valid() are NULL, then the function
returns NULL.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{"x":35}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 1</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{x:35}')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 0</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{x:35}',6)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 1</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{"x":35')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 0</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_valid(NULL)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; NULL</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jquote"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_quote_function"><span>4.21. </span>The json_quote() function</h2>

<p>The json_quote(X) function converts the SQL value X (a number or a
string) into its corresponding JSON representation.  If X is a JSON value
returned by another JSON function, then this function is a no-op.

</p><p>Examples:

<ul>
<li><span class='jex'>json_quote(3.14159)</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; 3.14159</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_quote('verdant')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '"verdant"'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_quote('[1]')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '"[1]"'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_quote(json('[1]'))</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '[1]'</span></li>

<li><span class='jex'>json_quote('[1,')</span>
<span class='jans'>&rarr; '"[1,"'</span></li>

</ul>


<a name="jgrouparray"></a>
<a name="jgroupobject"></a>
<a name="jgrouparrayb"></a>
<a name="jgroupobjectb"></a>

</p><h2 id="array_and_object_aggregate_functions"><span>4.22. </span>Array and object aggregate functions</h2>

<p>The json_group_array(X) function is an
<a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate SQL function</a> that returns a JSON array
comprised of all X values in the aggregation.
Similarly, the json_group_object(NAME,VALUE) function returns a JSON object
comprised of all NAME/VALUE pairs in the aggregation.
The "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" variants are the same except that they return their
result in the binary <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> format.

<a name="jeach"></a>

<a name="jtree"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_json_each_and_json_tree_table_valued_functions"><span>4.23. </span>The json_each() and json_tree() table-valued functions</h2>

<p>The json_each(X) and json_tree(X) <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a> walk the
JSON value provided as their first argument and return one row for each
element.  The json_each(X) function only walks the immediate children
of the top-level array or object,
or just the top-level element itself if the top-level
element is a primitive value.
The json_tree(X) function recursively walks through the
JSON substructure starting with the top-level element.  

</p><p>The json_each(X,P) and json_tree(X,P) functions work just like
their one-argument counterparts except that they treat the element
identified by path P as the top-level element.

</p><p>The schema for the table returned by json_each() and json_tree() is
as follows:

</p><blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE json_tree(
    key ANY,             -- key for current element relative to its parent
    value ANY,           -- value for the current element
    type TEXT,           -- 'object','array','string','integer', etc.
    atom ANY,            -- value for primitive types, null for array & object
    id INTEGER,          -- integer ID for this element
    parent INTEGER,      -- integer ID for the parent of this element
    fullkey TEXT,        -- full path describing the current element
    path TEXT,           -- path to the container of the current row
    json JSON HIDDEN,    -- 1st input parameter: the raw JSON
    root TEXT HIDDEN     -- 2nd input parameter: the PATH at which to start
);
</pre></blockquote>

<p>
The "key" column is the integer array index for elements of a JSON array 
and the text label for elements of a JSON object.  The key column is
NULL in all other cases.

</p><p>
The "atom" column is the SQL value corresponding to primitive elements - 
elements other than JSON arrays and objects.  The "atom" column is NULL
for a JSON array or object.  The "value" column is the same as the
"atom" column for primitive JSON elements but takes on the text JSON value
for arrays and objects.

</p><p>
The "type" column is an SQL text value taken from ('null', 'true', 'false',
'integer', 'real', 'text', 'array', 'object') according to the type of
the current JSON element.

</p><p>
The "id" column is an integer that identifies a specific JSON element
within the complete JSON string.  The "id" integer is an internal housekeeping
number, the computation of which might change in future releases.  The
only guarantee is that the "id" column will be different for every row.

</p><p>
The "parent" column is always NULL for json_each().
For json_tree(),
the "parent" column is the "id" integer for the parent of the current
element, or NULL for the top-level JSON element or the element identified
by the root path in the second argument.

</p><p>
The "fullkey" column is a text path that uniquely identifies the current
row element within the original JSON string.  The complete key to the
true top-level element is returned even if an alternative starting point
is provided by the "root" argument.

</p><p>
The "path" column is the path to the array or object container that holds 
the current row, or the path to the current row in the case where the 
iteration starts on a primitive type and thus only provides a single
row of output.

</p><h3 id="examples_using_json_each_and_json_tree_"><span>4.23.1. </span>Examples using json_each() and json_tree()</h3>

<p>Suppose the table "CREATE TABLE user(name,phone)" stores zero or
more phone numbers as a JSON array object in the user.phone field.
To find all users who have any phone number with a 704 area code:

</p><blockquote><pre>
SELECT DISTINCT user.name
  FROM user, json_each(user.phone)
 WHERE json_each.value LIKE '704-%';
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Now suppose the user.phone field contains plain text if the user
has only a single phone number and a JSON array if the user has multiple
phone numbers.  The same question is posed: "Which users have a phone number
in the 704 area code?"  But now the json_each() function can only be called
for those users that have two or more phone numbers since json_each()
requires well-formed JSON as its first argument:

</p><blockquote><pre>
SELECT name FROM user WHERE phone LIKE '704-%'
UNION
SELECT user.name
  FROM user, json_each(user.phone)
 WHERE json_valid(user.phone)
   AND json_each.value LIKE '704-%';
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Consider a different database with "CREATE TABLE big(json JSON)".
To see a complete line-by-line decomposition of the data:

</p><blockquote><pre>
SELECT big.rowid, fullkey, value
  FROM big, json_tree(big.json)
 WHERE json_tree.type NOT IN ('object','array');
</pre></blockquote>

<p>In the previous, the "type NOT IN ('object','array')" term of the
WHERE clause suppresses containers and only lets through leaf elements.
The same effect could be achieved this way:

</p><blockquote><pre>
SELECT big.rowid, fullkey, atom
  FROM big, json_tree(big.json)
 WHERE atom IS NOT NULL;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Suppose each entry in the BIG table is a JSON object 
with a '$.id' field that is a unique identifier
and a '$.partlist' field that can be a deeply nested object.
You want to find the id of every entry that contains one
or more references to uuid '6fa5181e-5721-11e5-a04e-57f3d7b32808' anywhere
in its '$.partlist'.

</p><blockquote><pre>
SELECT DISTINCT json_extract(big.json,'$.id')
  FROM big, json_tree(big.json, '$.partlist')
 WHERE json_tree.key='uuid'
   AND json_tree.value='6fa5181e-5721-11e5-a04e-57f3d7b32808';
</pre></blockquote>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/json1.in?m=d0ca839304">2024-07-25 15:06:57</a> UTC </small></i></p>

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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<h1 align=center>SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>

<p>SQLite understands most of the standard SQL
language.  But it does <a href="omitted.html">omit some features</a>
while at the same time
adding a few features of its own.  This document attempts to
describe precisely what parts of the SQL language SQLite does
and does not support.  A list of <a href="lang_keywords.html">SQL keywords</a> is
also provided.  The SQL language syntax is described by
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html">syntax diagrams</a>.

<p>The following syntax documentation topics are available:</p>

<table width="100%" cellpadding="5" border="0">
<tr><td valign="top"><ul>

<div class='columns' style='columns: 17em auto;'>
<ul style='padding-top:0;'>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html'>aggregate functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_altertable.html'>ALTER TABLE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_analyze.html'>ANALYZE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_attach.html'>ATTACH DATABASE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>BEGIN TRANSACTION</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_comment.html'>comment</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>COMMIT TRANSACTION</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html'>core functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_createindex.html'>CREATE INDEX</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_createtable.html'>CREATE TABLE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_createtrigger.html'>CREATE TRIGGER</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_createview.html'>CREATE VIEW</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_createvtab.html'>CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_datefunc.html'>date and time functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_delete.html'>DELETE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_detach.html'>DETACH DATABASE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_dropindex.html'>DROP INDEX</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_droptable.html'>DROP TABLE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_droptrigger.html'>DROP TRIGGER</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_dropview.html'>DROP VIEW</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>END TRANSACTION</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_explain.html'>EXPLAIN</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_expr.html'>expression</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_indexedby.html'>INDEXED BY</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_insert.html'>INSERT</a></li>
<li><a href='json1.html'>JSON functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_keywords.html'>keywords</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_mathfunc.html'>math functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_conflict.html'>ON CONFLICT clause</a></li>
<li><a href='pragma.html#syntax'>PRAGMA</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_reindex.html'>REINDEX</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_savepoint.html'>RELEASE SAVEPOINT</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_replace.html'>REPLACE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_returning.html'>RETURNING clause</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>ROLLBACK TRANSACTION</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_savepoint.html'>SAVEPOINT</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_select.html'>SELECT</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_update.html'>UPDATE</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_upsert.html'>UPSERT</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_vacuum.html'>VACUUM</a></li>
<li><a href='windowfunctions.html'>window functions</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_with.html'>WITH clause</a></li>
</ul>
</div>

</ul></td></tr></table>

<p>The routines <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare_v2()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a>,
<a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16_v2()</a>,
<a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a>, and <a href="c3ref/free_table.html">sqlite3_get_table()</a> accept
an SQL statement list (sql-stmt-list) which is a semicolon-separated
list of statements.</p>

<p><b><a href="syntax/sql-stmt-list.html">sql-stmt-list:</a></b></p><div class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:242px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 242.093 88.776">
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<p>Each SQL statement in the statement list is an instance of the
following:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntax/sql-stmt.html">sql-stmt:</a></b></p><div class='imgcontainer'>
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<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang.in?m=fa8ea6422f">2024-04-01 12:41:31</a> UTC </small></i></p>

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Built-in Aggregate Functions
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<h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1>
<p><b><a href="syntax/aggregate-function-invocation.html">aggregate-function-invocation:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='xaca9470c' onclick='hideorshow("xaca9470c","x8b15cdee")'>show</button></p>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
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 <div id='x35c90381' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x83fc0d55' onclick='hideorshow("x83fc0d55","xa2ca092e")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xa2ca092e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x74083e06' onclick='hideorshow("x74083e06","x6ae29795")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6ae29795' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x0f92d934' onclick='hideorshow("x0f92d934","xb3d76c7b")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xb3d76c7b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/window-defn.html">window-defn:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='xd3a803cf' onclick='hideorshow("xd3a803cf","x07298b48")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x07298b48' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x51075353' onclick='hideorshow("x51075353","x9e10b7e0")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x9e10b7e0' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
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<text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x4ba4425e' onclick='hideorshow("x4ba4425e","xeb26b09e")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xeb26b09e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L93,32A15 15 0 0 0 108 17A15 15 0 0 0 93 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FILTER</text>
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<path d="M374,32A15 15 0 0 0 389 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 2A15 15 0 0 0 359 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="374" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<circle cx="416" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x4815349c' onclick='hideorshow("x4815349c","x86ae0b3a")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x86ae0b3a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>


<p>
The aggregate functions shown below are available by default. 
There are two more aggregates grouped with the <a href="json1.html">JSON SQL functions</a>.
Applications can define custom aggregate functions using the
<a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface.
API.</p>

<p>
In any aggregate function that takes a single argument, that argument
can be preceded by the keyword DISTINCT.  In such cases, duplicate
elements are filtered before being passed into the aggregate function.
For example, the function "count(distinct X)" will return the number
of distinct values of column X instead of the total number of non-null
values in column X.
</p>

<a name="aggfilter"></a>

<p>
If a FILTER clause is provided, then only rows for which the <i>expr</i> is
true are included in the aggregate.
</p>

<a name="aggorderby"></a>

<p>
If an ORDER BY clause is provided, that clause determines the order in which
the inputs to the aggregate are processed.  For aggregate functions like max()
and count(), the input order does not matter.  But for things like
<a href="lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat">string_agg()</a> and <a href="json1.html#jgroupobject">json_group_object()</a>, the ORDER BY clause will make a
difference in the result.  If no ORDER BY clause is specified, the inputs to the
aggregate occur in an arbitrary order that might change from one invocation
to the next.
</p>

<p>
See also: <a href="lang_corefunc.html">scalar functions</a> and <a href="windowfunctions.html">window functions</a>.

<a name="aggfunclist"></a>

</p><h1 id="list_of_built_in_aggregate_functions"><span>2. </span>List of built-in aggregate functions</h1>

<div class='columns' style='columns: 11em auto;'>
<ul style='padding-top:0;'>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#avg'>avg(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#count'>count(*)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#count'>count(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>group_concat(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>group_concat(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg'>max(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg'>min(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>string_agg(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc'>sum(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc'>total(X)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>


<h1 id="descriptions_of_built_in_aggregate_functions"><span>3. </span>Descriptions of built-in aggregate functions</h1>
<dl>

<a name="avg"></a>
<dt><p><b>avg(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The avg() function
  returns the average value of all non-NULL <i>X</i> within a
  group.  String and BLOB values that do not look like numbers are
  interpreted as 0.
  The result of avg() is always a floating point value whenever
  there is at least one non-NULL input even if all
  inputs are integers.  The result of avg() is NULL if
  there are no non-NULL inputs.  The result of avg() is computed
  as <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc">total()</a>/<a href="lang_aggfunc.html#count">count()</a> so all of the constraints that apply to
  <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc">total()</a> also apply to avg().
</dd>
<a name="count"></a>
<dt><p><b>count(<i>X</i>)<br />count(*)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The count(X) function returns
  a count of the number of times
  that <i>X</i> is not NULL in a group.  The count(*) function
  (with no arguments) returns the total number of rows in the group.
</dd>
<a name="group_concat"></a>
<dt><p><b>group_concat(<i>X</i>)<br />group_concat(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />string_agg(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The group_concat() function returns
  a string which is the concatenation of
  all non-NULL values of <i>X</i>.  If parameter <i>Y</i> is present then
  it is used as the separator
  between instances of <i>X</i>.A comma (",") is used as the separator
  if <i>Y</i> is omitted.
  <p>
  The string_agg(X,Y) function is an alias
  for group_concat(X,Y).  String_agg() is compatible with PostgreSQL
  and SQL-Server and group_concat() is compatible with MySQL.
  <p>
  The order of the concatenated elements is arbitrary unless an
  ORDER BY argument is included immediately after the last parameter.
</dd>
<a name="max_agg"></a>
<dt><p><b>max(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The max() aggregate function
  returns the maximum value of all values in the group.
  The maximum value is the value that would be returned last in an
  ORDER BY on the same column.  Aggregate max() returns NULL 
  if and only if there are no non-NULL values in the group.
</dd>
<a name="min_agg"></a>
<dt><p><b>min(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The min() aggregate function
  returns the minimum non-NULL value of all values in the group.
  The minimum value is the first non-NULL value that would appear
  in an ORDER BY of the column.
  Aggregate min() returns NULL if and only if there are no non-NULL
  values in the group.
</dd>
<a name="sumunc"></a>
<dt><p><b>sum(<i>X</i>)<br />total(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sum() and total() aggregate functions
  return the sum of all non-NULL values in the group.
  If there are no non-NULL input rows then sum() returns
  NULL but total() returns 0.0.
  NULL is not normally a helpful result for the sum of no rows
  but the SQL standard requires it and most other
  SQL database engines implement sum() that way so SQLite does it in the
  same way in order to be compatible.   The non-standard total() function
  is provided as a convenient way to work around this design problem
  in the SQL language.</p>

  <p>The result of total() is always a floating point value.
  The result of sum() is an integer value if all non-NULL inputs are integers.
  If any input to sum() is neither an integer nor a NULL,
  then sum() returns a floating point value
  which is an approximation of the mathematical sum.</p>

  <p>Sum() will throw an "integer overflow" exception if all inputs
  are integers or NULL
  and an integer overflow occurs at any point during the computation.
  No overflow error is ever raised if any prior input was a floating point
  value.
  Total() never throws an integer overflow.

  <p>When summing floating-point values, if the magnitudes of the values
  differ wildly then the resulting sum might be imprecise due to the fact that
  <a href="floatingpoint.html#fpapprox">IEEE 754 floating point values are approximations</a>.
  Use the decimal_sum(X) aggregate in the <a href="floatingpoint.html#decext">decimal extension</a> to obtain
  an exact summation of floating point numbers.  Consider this test case:

<p><blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE t1(x REAL);
INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1.55e+308),(1.23),(3.2e-16),(-1.23),(-1.55e308);
SELECT sum(x), decimal_sum(x) FROM t1;
</pre></blockquote></p>

  <p>The large values &plusmn;1.55e+308 cancel each other out, but the
  cancellation does not occur until the end of the sum and in the meantime
  the large +1.55e+308 swamps the tiny 3.2e-16 value.  The end result is
  an imprecise result for the sum().  The decimal_sum() aggregate
  generates an exact answer, at the cost of additional CPU and memory usage.
  Note also that decimal_sum() is not built into the SQLite core; it is a
  <a href="loadext.html">loadable extension</a>.

  <p>If sum of inputs is too large to represent as a IEEE 754 floating
  point value, then a +Infinity or -Infinity result may be returned.
  If very large values with differing signs are used
  such that the SUM() or TOTAL() function is
  unable to determine if the correct result is +Infinity or -Infinity
  or some other value in between, then the result is NULL.  Hence, for
  example, the following query returns NULL:

<p><blockquote><pre>
WITH t1(x) AS (VALUES(1.0),(-9e+999),(2.0),(+9e+999),(3.0))
 SELECT sum(x) FROM t1;
</pre></blockquote></p>
</dd>

</dl>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_aggfunc.in?m=d872d05e39">2023-12-05 14:43:20</a> UTC </small></i></p>

Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_altertable.html.






































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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ALTER TABLE
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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>

<p><b><a href="syntax/alter-table-stmt.html">alter-table-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-def.html">column-def:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-constraint.html">column-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x4d609a22' onclick='hideorshow("x4d609a22","x3577858c")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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<path d="M287,32L336,32L336,2L287,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
<button id='x200b6f54' onclick='hideorshow("x200b6f54","xd943c26e")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xd943c26e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M82,41L150,41A15 15 0 0 0 165 26L165,26A15 15 0 0 0 150 11L82,11A15 15 0 0 0 66 26L66,26A15 15 0 0 0 82 41Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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 <div id='xbe7a6dc2' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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 <div id='x3f8a56df' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xf560ed50' onclick='hideorshow("xf560ed50","xcd40fc80")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xcd40fc80' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x91ebcf32' onclick='hideorshow("x91ebcf32","x0f242130")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x0f242130' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<text x="49" y="150" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">AS</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x51a27004' onclick='hideorshow("x51a27004","xaa710ce9")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xaa710ce9' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:293px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 293.842 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,17 56,21 56,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M32,17L62,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M83,32L127,32A15 15 0 0 0 142 17A15 15 0 0 0 127 2L83,2A15 15 0 0 0 68 17A15 15 0 0 0 83 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="105" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="105" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="125" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INTERSECT</text>
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<text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text>
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<path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text>
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<path d="M32,17 L 39,17 Q 47,17 47,32 L 47,40 Q 47,55 55,55 L 62,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M142,17L276,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M233,92 L 240,92 Q 248,92 248,77 L 248,54 L 248,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x002fa5ea' onclick='hideorshow("x002fa5ea","x22b50d0d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x22b50d0d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
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<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1d7cfc63' onclick='hideorshow("x1d7cfc63","xee87f645")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xee87f645' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M120,55L137,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M173,55L203,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
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<path d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
<polygon points="113,17 101,21 101,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M90,17L107,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x9b7f43ba' onclick='hideorshow("x9b7f43ba","xdedfadcc")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xdedfadcc' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text>
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<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xac712b32' onclick='hideorshow("xac712b32","x48947f3f")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x48947f3f' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='xefa2d93b' onclick='hideorshow("xefa2d93b","x4dafeebc")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x4dafeebc' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L39,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="69" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M151,70L155,70A15 15 0 0 0 170 55L170,55A15 15 0 0 0 155 39L151,39A15 15 0 0 0 136 55L136,55A15 15 0 0 0 151 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x597e83ef' onclick='hideorshow("x597e83ef","x4052242d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x4052242d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,36 L 16,36 Q 24,36 24,51 L 24,59 Q 24,74 34,74 L 45,74"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,89L162,89A15 15 0 0 0 177 74L177,74A15 15 0 0 0 162 59L66,59A15 15 0 0 0 50 74L50,74A15 15 0 0 0 66 89Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="114" y="74" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">schema-name</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<path d="M382,17L630,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x99cc5adf' onclick='hideorshow("x99cc5adf","xaf63a11d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xaf63a11d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>


<p>SQLite supports a limited subset of ALTER TABLE.
The ALTER TABLE command in SQLite allows
these alterations of an existing table:
it can be renamed;
a column can be renamed;
a column can be added to it;
or
a column can be dropped from it.

<a name="altertabrename"></a>

</p><h1 id="alter_table_rename"><span>2. </span>ALTER TABLE RENAME</h1>

<p> The RENAME TO syntax changes the name of <span class='yyterm'>table-name</span>
to <span class='yyterm'>new-table-name</span>.
This command 
cannot be used to move a table between attached databases, only to rename 
a table within the same database.
If the table being renamed has triggers or indices, then these remain
attached to the table after it has been renamed.

</p><blockquote style="background-color: #ffd0d0;">
<b>Compatibility Note:</b>
The behavior of ALTER TABLE when renaming a table was enhanced
in versions 3.25.0 (2018-09-15) and 3.26.0 (2018-12-01)
in order to carry the rename operation forward into triggers and
views that reference the renamed table.  This is considered an
improvement. Applications that depend on the older (and
arguably buggy) behavior can use the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_alter_table">PRAGMA legacy_alter_table=ON</a> statement or the
<a href="c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html#sqlitedbconfiglegacyaltertable">SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE</a> configuration parameter
on <a href="c3ref/db_config.html">sqlite3_db_config()</a> interface to make ALTER TABLE RENAME
behave as it did prior to version 3.25.0.
</blockquote>

<p>
Beginning with release 3.25.0 (2018-09-15), references to the table
within trigger bodies and view definitions are also renamed.
</p>

<p> Prior to version 3.26.0 (2018-12-01), FOREIGN KEY references
to a table that is renamed were only edited if the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=ON</a>, or in other words if
<a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> were being enforced.  With
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=OFF</a>, FOREIGN KEY constraints would not be changed
when the table that the foreign key referred to (the "<a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">parent table</a>")
was renamed.  Beginning with version 3.26.0, FOREIGN KEY constraints
are always converted when a table is renamed, unless the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_alter_table">PRAGMA legacy_alter_table=ON</a> setting is engaged.  The following
table summarizes the difference:</p>

<blockquote>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th>PRAGMA foreign_keys
</th><th>PRAGMA legacy_alter_table
</th><th><a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">Parent Table</a>
references are updated
</th><th>SQLite version
</th></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">&lt; 3.26.0
</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">&gt;= 3.26.0
</td></tr><tr><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">all
</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">all
</td></tr><tr><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">all
</td></tr></table>
</blockquote>

<a name="altertabmvcol"></a>

<h1 id="alter_table_rename_column"><span>3. </span>ALTER TABLE RENAME COLUMN</h1>

<p> The RENAME COLUMN TO syntax changes the
<span class='yyterm'>column-name</span> of table <span class='yyterm'>table-name</span>
into <span class='yyterm'>new-column-name</span>.  The column name is changed both
within the table definition itself and also within all indexes, triggers,
and views that reference the column.  If the column name change would
result in a semantic ambiguity in a trigger or view, then the RENAME
COLUMN fails with an error and no changes are applied.

<a name="altertabaddcol"></a>

</p><h1 id="alter_table_add_column"><span>4. </span>ALTER TABLE ADD COLUMN</h1>

<p> The ADD COLUMN syntax
is used to add a new column to an existing table.
The new column is always appended to the end of the list of existing columns.
The <a href="syntax/column-def.html">column-def</a> rule defines the characteristics of the new column.
The new column may take any of the forms permissible in a <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a>
statement, with the following restrictions:
</p><ul>
<li>The column may not have a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint.</li>
<li>The column may not have a default value of CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE, 
    CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, or an expression in parentheses.</li>
<li>If a NOT NULL constraint is specified, then the column must have a
    default value other than NULL.
</li><li>If <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> are <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">enabled</a> and
    a column with a <a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">REFERENCES clause</a>
    is added, the column must have a default value of NULL.
</li><li>The column may not be <a href="gencol.html">GENERATED ALWAYS ... STORED</a>,
though VIRTUAL columns are allowed.
</li></ul>

<p>When adding a column with a <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a>, or a NOT NULL constraint
on a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>, the added constraints are tested against all 
preexisting rows in the table and the ADD COLUMN fails
if any constraint fails.  The testing of added constraints
against preexisting rows is a new enhancement as of SQLite version
3.37.0 (2021-11-27).</p>

<p>The ALTER TABLE command works by modifying the SQL text of the schema
stored in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>.
No changes are made to table content for renames or column addition without
constraints.
Because of this,
the execution time of such ALTER TABLE commands is independent of
the amount of data in the table and such commands will 
run as quickly on a table with 10 million rows as on a table with 1 row.
When adding new columns that have CHECK constraints, or adding generated
columns with NOT NULL constraints, or when deleting columns, then all
existing data in the table must be either read (to test new constraints
against existing rows) or written (to remove deleted columns).  In those
cases, the ALTER TABLE command takes time that is proportional to the
amount of content in the table being altered.
</p>

<p>After ADD COLUMN has been run on a database, that database will not
be readable by SQLite version 3.1.3 (2005-02-20) and earlier.</p>

<a name="altertabdropcol"></a>

<h1 id="alter_table_drop_column"><span>5. </span>ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN</h1>

<p> The DROP COLUMN syntax
is used to remove an existing column from a table.
The DROP COLUMN command removes the named column from the table,
and rewrites its content to purge the data associated
with that column.
The DROP COLUMN command only works if the column is not referenced
by any other parts of the schema and is not a PRIMARY KEY and
does not have a UNIQUE constraint.
Possible reasons why the DROP COLUMN command can fail include:
</p><ul>
<li>The column is a PRIMARY KEY or part of one.
</li><li>The column has a UNIQUE constraint.
</li><li>The column is indexed.
</li><li>The column is named in the WHERE clause of a <a href="partialindex.html">partial index</a>.
</li><li>The column is named in a table or column <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a>
not associated with the column being dropped.
</li><li>The column is used in a <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a>.
</li><li>The column is used in the expression of a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>.
</li><li>The column appears in a trigger or view.
</li></ul>

<h2 id="how_it_works"><span>5.1. </span>How It Works</h2>

<p>SQLite stores the schema as plain text in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>.
The DROP COLUMN command (and all of the other variations of ALTER TABLE
as well) modify that text and then attempt to reparse the entire schema.
The command is only successful if the schema is still valid after the
text has been modified.  In the case of the DROP COLUMN command, the
only text modified is that the column definition is removed from the
CREATE TABLE statement.  The DROP COLUMN command will fail if there
are any traces of the column in other parts of the schema that will
prevent the schema from parsing after the CREATE TABLE statement has
been modified.

</p><h1 id="disable_error_checking_using_pragma_writable_schema_on"><span>6. </span>Disable Error Checking Using PRAGMA writable_schema=ON</h1>

<p>ALTER TABLE will normally fail and make no changes if it encounters
any entries in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a> that do not parse.  For
example, if there is a malformed VIEW or TRIGGER associated with
table named "tbl1", then an attempt to rename "tbl1" to "tbl1neo" will
fail because the associated views and triggers could not be parsed.

</p><p>Beginning with SQLite 3.38.0 (2022-02-22), this error checking
can be disabled by setting "<a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=ON;</a>".  When
the schema is writable, ALTER TABLE silently ignores any rows of the
sqlite_schema table that do not parse.

<a name="otheralter"></a>

</p><h1 id="making_other_kinds_of_table_schema_changes"><span>7. </span>Making Other Kinds Of Table Schema Changes</h1>

<p> The only schema altering commands directly supported by SQLite are the
"<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabrename">rename table</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabmvcol">rename column</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabaddcol">add column</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabdropcol">drop column</a>"
commands shown above.  However, applications
can make other arbitrary changes to the format of a table using a simple
sequence of operations.
The steps to make arbitrary changes to the schema design of some table X
are as follows:

</p><ol>
<li><p>
If foreign key constraints are enabled, disable them using <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=OFF</a>.

</p></li><li><p>
Start a transaction.

</p></li><li><p>
Remember the format of all indexes, triggers, and views associated with table X.
This information will be needed in step 8 below.  One way to do this is
to run a query like the following:
SELECT type, sql FROM sqlite_schema WHERE tbl_name='X'.

</p></li><li><p>
Use <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> to construct a new table "new_X" that is in the desired
revised format of table X.  Make sure that the name "new_X" does not collide
with any existing table name, of course.

</p></li><li><p>
Transfer content from X into new_X using a statement
like: INSERT INTO new_X SELECT ... FROM X.

</p></li><li><p>
Drop the old table X:  <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE X</a>.

</p></li><li><p>
Change the name of new_X to X using: ALTER TABLE new_X RENAME TO X.

</p></li><li><p>
Use <a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a>, <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a>, and <a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a>
to reconstruct indexes, triggers, and views
associated with table X.  Perhaps use the old format of the triggers,
indexes, and views saved from step 3 above as a guide, making changes
as appropriate for the alteration.

</p></li><li><p>If any views refer to table X in a way that is affected by the
schema change, then drop those views using <a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a> and recreate them
with whatever changes are necessary to accommodate the schema change
using <a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a>.

</p></li><li><p>
If foreign key constraints were originally enabled
then run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_key_check">PRAGMA foreign_key_check</a> to verify that the schema
change did not break any foreign key constraints.


</p></li><li><p>
Commit the transaction started in step 2.

</p></li><li><p>
If foreign keys constraints were originally enabled, reenable them now.
</p></li></ol>

<a name="caution"></a>

<p>
<b>Caution:</b>
Take care to follow the procedure above precisely.  The boxes below
summarize two procedures for modifying a table definition.  At first
glance, they both appear to accomplish the same thing.  However, the
procedure on the right does not always work, especially with the
enhanced <a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabrename">rename table</a> capabilities added by versions 3.25.0 and
3.26.0.  In the procedure on the right, the initial rename of the
table to a temporary name might corrupt references to that table in
triggers, views, and foreign key constraints.  The safe procedure on
the left constructs the revised table definition using a new temporary
name, then renames the table into its final name, which does not break
links.

</p><center>
<table border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ol>
<li>Create new table
</li><li>Copy data
</li><li>Drop old table
</li><li>Rename new into old
</li></ol>
</td><td valign="top">
<ol>
<li>Rename old table
</li><li>Create new table
</li><li>Copy data
</li><li>Drop old table
</li></ol>
</td></tr><tr>
<th>&uarr;<br>Correct
</th><th>&uarr;<br>Incorrect
</th></tr></table>
</center>

<p>The 12-step <a href="lang_altertable.html#otheralter">generalized ALTER TABLE procedure</a>
above will work even if the
schema change causes the information stored in the table to change.
So the full 12-step procedure above is appropriate for dropping a column,
changing the order of columns, adding or removing a UNIQUE constraint
or PRIMARY KEY, adding CHECK or FOREIGN KEY or NOT NULL constraints,
or changing the datatype for a column, for example.  However, a simpler
and faster procedure can optionally be used for
some changes that do no affect the on-disk content in any way.
The following simpler procedure is appropriate for removing
CHECK or FOREIGN KEY or NOT NULL constraints,
or adding, removing, or changing default values on
a column.

</p><ol>
<li><p> Start a transaction.

</p></li><li><p> Run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_schema_version">PRAGMA schema_version</a> to determine the current schema
version number.  This number will be needed for step 6 below.

</p></li><li><p> Activate schema editing using 
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=ON</a>.

</p></li><li><p> Run an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statement to change the definition of table X
in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>: 
UPDATE sqlite_schema SET sql=... WHERE type='table' AND name='X';
</p><p><em>Caution:</em>  Making a change to the sqlite_schema table like this will
render the database corrupt and unreadable if the change contains
a syntax error.  It is suggested that careful testing of the UPDATE
statement be done on a separate blank database prior to using it on
a database containing important data.

</p></li><li><p> If the change to table X also affects other tables or indexes or
triggers are views within schema, then run <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statements to modify
those other tables indexes and views too.  For example, if the name of
a column changes, all FOREIGN KEY constraints, triggers, indexes, and
views that refer to that column must be modified.
</p><p><em>Caution:</em>  Once again, making changes to the sqlite_schema 
table like this will render the database corrupt and unreadable if the 
change contains an error.  Carefully test this entire procedure
on a separate test database prior to using it on
a database containing important data and/or make backup copies of
important databases prior to running this procedure.

</p></li><li><p> Increment the schema version number using
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_schema_version">PRAGMA schema_version=X</a> where X is one
more than the old schema version number found in step 2 above.

</p></li><li><p> Disable schema editing using 
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=OFF</a>.

</p></li><li><p> (Optional) Run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_integrity_check">PRAGMA integrity_check</a> to verify that the
schema changes did not damage the database.

</p></li><li><p> Commit the transaction started on step 1 above.
</p></li></ol>

<p>If some future version of SQLite adds new ALTER TABLE capabilities, 
those capabilities will very likely use one of the two procedures
outlined above.

<a name="altertableishard"></a>

</p><h1 id="why_alter_table_is_such_a_problem_for_sqlite"><span>8. </span>Why ALTER TABLE is such a problem for SQLite</h1>

<p>Most SQL database engines store the schema already parsed into
various system tables.  On those database engines, ALTER TABLE merely 
has to make modifications to the corresponding system tables.

</p><p>SQLite is different in that it stores the schema
in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema</a> table as the original text of the CREATE
statements that define the schema.  Hence ALTER TABLE needs
to revise the text of the CREATE statement.  Doing
so can be tricky for certain "creative" schema designs.

</p><p>The SQLite approach of storing the schema as text has advantages
for an embedded relational database.  For one, it means that the
schema takes up less space in the database file.  This is important
since a common SQLite usage pattern is to have many small,
separate database files instead of putting everything in one
big global database file, which is the usual approach for client/server
database engines.
Since the schema is duplicated in each separate database file, it is
important to keep the schema representation compact.

</p><p>Storing the schema as text rather than as parsed tables also
give flexibility to the implementation.  Since the internal parse
of the schema is regenerated each time the database is opened, the
internal representation of the schema can change from one release
to the next.  This is important, as sometimes new features require
enhancements to the internal schema representation.  Changing the
internal schema representation would be much more difficult if the
schema representation was exposed in the database file.  So, in other
words, storing the schema as text helps maintain backwards 
compatibility, and helps ensure that older database files can be
read and written by newer versions of SQLite.

</p><p>Storing the schema as text also makes the 
<a href="fileformat2.html">SQLite database file format</a> easier to define, document, and 
understand. This helps make SQLite database files a
<a href="locrsf.html">recommended storage format</a> for long-term archiving of data.

</p><p>The downside of storing schema a text is that it can make
the schema tricky to modify.  And for that reason, the ALTER TABLE
support in SQLite has traditionally lagged behind other SQL
database engines that store their schemas as parsed system tables
that are easier to modify.




</p><p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_altertable.in?m=7d2205713a">2022-08-10 18:45:48</a> UTC </small></i></p>

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ANALYZE
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Table Of Contents
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<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#recommended_usage_patterns">2. Recommended usage patterns</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#periodically_run_pragma_optimize_">2.1. Periodically run "PRAGMA optimize"</a></div>
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<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#limitations_of_approximate_analyze">5.1. Limitations of approximate ANALYZE</a></div>
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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>

<p><b><a href="syntax/analyze-stmt.html">analyze-stmt:</a></b>
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<p> The ANALYZE command gathers statistics about tables and
indices and stores the collected information
in <a href="fileformat2.html#intschema">internal tables</a> of the database where the query optimizer can
access the information and use it to help make better query planning choices.
If no arguments are given, the main database and all attached databases are
analyzed.  If a schema name is given as the argument, then all tables
and indices in that one database are analyzed.  
If the argument is a table name, then only that table and the
indices associated with that table are analyzed.  If the argument
is an index name, then only that one index is analyzed.</p>

<a name="req"></a>

<h1 id="recommended_usage_patterns"><span>2. </span>Recommended usage patterns</h1>

<p> The use of ANALYZE is never required.  However, if an application
makes complex queries that have many possible query plans, the query
planner will be better able to pick the best plan if ANALYZE has
been run.  This can result it significant performance improvements for
some queries.

</p><p> Two recommended approaches for when and how to run ANALYZE are
described in the next subsections, in order of preference.

<a name="pragopt"></a>

</p><h2 id="periodically_run_pragma_optimize_"><span>2.1. </span>Periodically run "PRAGMA optimize"</h2>

<p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command will automatically run ANALYZE when
needed.  Suggested use:

</p><ol>
<li><p>
Applications with short-lived database connections should run
"PRAGMA optimize;" once, just prior to closing each database connection.

</p></li><li><p>
Applications that use long-lived database connections should run
"PRAGMA optimize=0x10002;" when the connection is first opened, and then
also run "PRAGMA optimize;" periodically, perhaps once per day, or more if
the database is evolving rapidly.

</p></li><li><p>All applications should run "PRAGMA optimize;" after a schema change,
especially after one or more <a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a> statements.
</p></li></ol>

<p>

</p><p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command is usually a no-op but it will occasionally
run one or more ANALYZE subcommands on individual tables of the database
if doing so will be useful to the query planner.
Since SQLite version 3.46.0 (2024-05-23), the "PRAGMA optimize" command
automatically limits the scope of ANALYZE subcommands so that
the overall "PRAGMA optimize" command completes quickly even on enormous
databases.  There is no need to use <a href="pragma.html#pragma_analysis_limit">PRAGMA analysis_limit</a>.  This is the
recommended way of running ANALYZE moving forward.

</p><p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command will normally only consider running ANALYZE on
tables that have been previously queried by the same database connection or
that do not have entries in the <a href="fileformat2.html#stat1tab">sqlite_stat1</a> table.
However, if the 0x10000 bit is added to the argument, PRAGMA optimize will
examine all tables to see if they can benefit from ANALYZE, not just those
that have been recently queried.
There is no query history when a database connection first opens, and
that is why adding the 0x10000 bit is recommended when running PRAGMA optimize
on a fresh database connection.

</p><p>See the <a href="lang_analyze.html#autoanalyze">Automatically Running ANALYZE</a> and
<a href="lang_analyze.html#approx">Approximate ANALYZE For Large Databases</a> sections below for additional
information.

<a name="statanal"></a>

</p><h2 id="fixed_results_of_analyze"><span>2.2. </span>Fixed results of ANALYZE</h2>

<p>Running ANALYZE can cause SQLite to choose different query plans
for subsequent queries.  This is almost always a positive thing, as the
query plans chosen after ANALYZE will in nearly every case be better than
the query plans picked before ANALYZE.  That is the whole point of ANALYZE.
But there can be no proof of running ANALYZE will always be beneficial.
One can construct pathological cases where running
ANALYZE could make some subsequent queries run slower.

</p><p>Some developers prefer that once the design of an application is frozen,
SQLite will always pick the same query plans as it did during
development and testing.
Then if a millions of copies of the application are shipped to customers,
the developers are assured that all of those millions of copies are running
the same query plans regardless of what data the individual customers insert
into their particular databases.  This can help in reproducing complaints
of performance problems coming back from the field.

</p><p>To achieve this objection, never run a full ANALYZE nor the
"PRAGMA optimize" command in the application.
Rather, only run ANALYZE during development, manually using the
<a href="cli.html">command-line interface</a> or similar, on a test database 
that is similar in size and content to live databases.  Then capture
the result of this one-time ANALYZE using a script like the
following:

</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>.mode list
SELECT 
  'ANALYZE sqlite_schema;' ||
  'DELETE FROM sqlite_stat1;' ||
  'INSERT INTO sqlite_stat1(tbl,idx,stat)VALUES' ||
  (SELECT group_concat(format('(%Q,%Q,%Q)',tbl,idx,stat),',')
    FROM sqlite_stat1) ||
  ';ANALYZE sqlite_schema;';
</pre></div>

<p>When creating a new instance of the database in deployed instances of
the application, or perhaps every time the application is started up in
the case of long-running applications, run the commands generated by
script above.  This will populate the <a href="fileformat2.html#stat1tab">sqlite_stat1</a> table exactly as
it was during development and testing and ensure that the query plans
selected in the field are same has those selected during testing in the
lab.  Maybe copy/paste the string generated by the script above into
a static string constant named "zStat1Init" and then invoke:

</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>sqlite3_exec(db, zStat1Init, 0, 0, 0);
</pre></div>

<p>Perhaps also add "BEGIN;" at the start of the string constant and
"COMMIT;" at the end, depending on the context in which the script is run.

</p><p>See the <a href="queryplanner-ng.html#qpstab">query planner stability guarantee</a> for addition information.

</p><h1 id="details"><span>3. </span>Details</h1>

<p> The default implementation stores all statistics in a single
table named "<a href="fileformat2.html#stat1tab">sqlite_stat1</a>".  
 If SQLite is compiled with the
<a href="compile.html#enable_stat4">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT4</a> option, then additional histogram data is
collected and stored in <a href="fileformat2.html#stat4tab">sqlite_stat4</a>.
Older versions of SQLite would make use of the <a href="fileformat2.html#stat2tab">sqlite_stat2</a> table
or <a href="fileformat2.html#stat3tab">sqlite_stat3</a> table
when compiled with <a href="compile.html#enable_stat2">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT2</a> or <a href="compile.html#enable_stat3">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT3</a>,
but all recent versions of
SQLite ignore the sqlite_stat2 and sqlite_stat3 tables.
Future enhancements may create
additional <a href="fileformat2.html#intschema">internal tables</a> with the same name pattern except with
final digit larger than "4".
All of these tables are collectively referred to as "statistics tables".
</p>

<p> The content of the statistics tables can be queried using <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>
and can be changed using the <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, and <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> commands.
The <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> command works on statistics tables
as of SQLite version 3.7.9. (2011-11-01)
The <a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a> command does not work on statistics tables.
Appropriate care should be used when changing the content of the statistics
tables as invalid content can cause SQLite to select inefficient
query plans.  Generally speaking, one should not modify the content of
the statistics tables by any mechanism other than invoking the
ANALYZE command.  
See "<a href="optoverview.html#manctrl">Manual Control Of Query Plans Using SQLITE_STAT Tables</a>" for
further information.</p>

<p> Statistics gathered by ANALYZE are <u>not</u> updated as
the content of the database changes.  If the content of the database
changes significantly, or if the database schema changes, then one should
consider rerunning the ANALYZE command in order to update the statistics.</p>

<p> The query planner loads the content of the statistics tables
into memory when the schema is read.  Hence, when an application
changes the statistics tables directly, SQLite will not immediately
notice the changes. An application
can force the query planner to reread the statistics tables by running
<b>ANALYZE sqlite_schema</b>. </p>

<a name="autoanalyze"></a>

<h1 id="automatically_running_analyze"><span>4. </span>Automatically Running ANALYZE</h1>

<p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command will automatically run ANALYZE on individual
tables on an as-needed basis.  The recommended practice is for applications
to invoke the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> statement just before closing each database
connection.  Or, if the application keeps a single database connection open
for a long time, then it should run "PRAGMA optimize=0x10002" when the
connection is first opened and run "PRAGMA optimize;" periodically thereafter,
perhaps once per day or even once per hour.</p>

<p>Each SQLite <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a> records cases when the query planner would
benefit from having accurate results of ANALYZE at hand.  These records
are held in memory and accumulate over the life of a database connection.
The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command looks at those records and runs ANALYZE on only
those tables for which new or updated ANALYZE data seems likely to be useful.
In most cases <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> will not run ANALYZE, but it will occasionally
do so either for tables that have never before been analyzed, or for tables
that have grown significantly since they were last analyzed.</p>

<p>Since the actions of <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> are determined to some extent by
prior queries that have been evaluated on the same database connection, it
is recommended that <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> be deferred until the database connection
is closing and has thus had an opportunity to accumulate as much usage information
as possible.  It is also reasonable to set a timer to run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a>
every few hours, or every few days, for database connections that stay open
for a long time.  When running <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> immediately after a
database connection is opened, one can add the 0x10000 bit to the bitmask
argument (thus making the command read "PRAGMA optimize=0x10002") which
causes all tables to be examined, even tables that have not been
queried during the current connection.</p>

<p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command was first introduced with 
SQLite 3.18.0 (2017-03-28) and is a no-op for all prior releases
of SQLite.  The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a> command was significantly enhanced
in SQLite 3.46.0 (2024-05-23) and the advice given in this
documentation is based on those enhancements.  Applications that
use earlier versions of SQLite should consult the corresponding
documentation for better advice on the best ways to use PRAGMA optimize.</p>

<a name="approx"></a>

<h1 id="approximate_analyze_for_large_databases"><span>5. </span>Approximate ANALYZE For Large Databases</h1>

<p>By default, ANALYZE does a full scan of every index.  This can be slow for
large databases.  So beginning with SQLite version 3.32.0 (2020-05-22), the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_analysis_limit">PRAGMA analysis_limit</a> command can be used to limit the amount of
scanning performed by ANALYZE, and thus help ANALYZE to run faster,
even on very large database files.  We call this running an
"approximate ANALYZE".

</p><p>The recommended usage pattern for the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_analysis_limit">analysis_limit</a> pragma is
like this:

</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>PRAGMA analysis_limit=1000;
</pre></div>

<p>This pragma tells the ANALYZE command to start a full scan
of the index as it normally would.  But when the number of rows visited
reaches 1000 (or whatever other limit is specified by the pragma), the
ANALYZE command will begin taking actions to stop the scan.  If
the left-most column of the index has changed at least once during the
previous 1000 steps, then the analysis stops immediately.  But if the
left-most column has always been the same, then ANALYZE skips ahead to
the first entry with a different left-most column and reads an additional
1000 rows before terminating.

</p><p>The details of the effects of the analysis limit described in the previous
paragraph are subject to change in future versions of SQLite.  But the
core idea will remain the same.  An analysis limit of N will strive to
limit the number of rows visited in each index to approximately N.

</p><p>Values of N between 100 and 1000 are recommended.
Or, to disable the analysis limit, causing ANALYZE to do a
complete scan of each index, set the analysis limit to 0.  The default
value for the analysis limit is 0 for backwards compatibility.

</p><p>The values placed in the sqlite_stat1 table by an approximate ANALYZE
are not exactly the same as what would be computed by an unrestricted 
analysis.  But they are usually close enough.  The index statistics in
the sqlite_stat1 table are approximations in any case, so the fact that
the results of an approximate ANALYZE are slightly different from
a traditional full scan ANALYZE has little practical impact.  It is
possible to construct a pathological case where an approximate ANALYZE
is noticeably inferior to a full-scan ANALYZE, but such cases are rare in
real-world problems.

</p><p>A good rule of thumb seems to be to always set "PRAGMA analysis_limit=N"
for N between 100 and 1000 prior to running either "ANALYZE".  It used
to be that this was also recommended  prior to running
"<a href="pragma.html#pragma_optimize">PRAGMA optimize</a>", but since version 3.46.0 (2024-05-23) that
happens automatically.  The results are not quite as precise when using
PRAGMA analysis_limit, but they are precise enough, and the fact that
the results are computed so much faster means that developers are more
likely to compute them.  An approximate ANALYZE is better than not
running ANALYZE at all.

</p><h2 id="limitations_of_approximate_analyze"><span>5.1. </span>Limitations of approximate ANALYZE</h2>

<p>The content in the sqlite_stat4 table cannot be computed with
anything less than a full scan.  Hence, if a non-zero analysis limit
is specified, the sqlite_stat4 table is not computed.
</p><p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_analyze.in?m=4607c3507e">2024-05-05 15:23:53</a> UTC </small></i></p>

Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_attach.html.

























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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<!DOCTYPE html>
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ATTACH DATABASE
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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>
<p><b><a href="syntax/attach-stmt.html">attach-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='xb544a08c' onclick='hideorshow("xb544a08c","x2b4169df")'>hide</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x42adb686' onclick='hideorshow("x42adb686","xcc64a89d")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
<button id='xf0a940ef' onclick='hideorshow("xf0a940ef","x404355f1")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x404355f1' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xad6797ec' onclick='hideorshow("xad6797ec","xc3a5b88f")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xc3a5b88f' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x813cd4c3' onclick='hideorshow("x813cd4c3","x6cd4c728")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6cd4c728' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M47,32L82,32A15 15 0 0 0 97 17A15 15 0 0 0 82 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x3a33a92c' onclick='hideorshow("x3a33a92c","xbc13adaa")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xbc13adaa' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:293px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 293.842 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,17 56,21 56,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M32,17L62,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M83,32L127,32A15 15 0 0 0 142 17A15 15 0 0 0 127 2L83,2A15 15 0 0 0 68 17A15 15 0 0 0 83 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="105" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="105" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="125" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INTERSECT</text>
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<text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text>
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<path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text>
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<path d="M142,17L276,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M233,92 L 240,92 Q 248,92 248,77 L 248,54 L 248,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x2ceadb0d' onclick='hideorshow("x2ceadb0d","x56f32f52")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x56f32f52' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
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<circle cx="787" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="483,77 495,73 495,82" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
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<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='xded12a6e' onclick='hideorshow("xded12a6e","x1c77b59d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x1c77b59d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M120,55L137,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M173,55L203,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<polygon points="473,17 462,21 462,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
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<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
<polygon points="113,17 101,21 101,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M90,17L107,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x9cb6f030' onclick='hideorshow("x9cb6f030","xbc65b81b")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xbc65b81b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x2f074214' onclick='hideorshow("x2f074214","x3891905f")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x3891905f' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='xc8e8ac06' onclick='hideorshow("xc8e8ac06","x349ac0e2")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x349ac0e2' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L39,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="69" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M151,70L155,70A15 15 0 0 0 170 55L170,55A15 15 0 0 0 155 39L151,39A15 15 0 0 0 136 55L136,55A15 15 0 0 0 151 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x82202bbe' onclick='hideorshow("x82202bbe","x39b000f0")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x39b000f0' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,36 L 16,36 Q 24,36 24,51 L 24,59 Q 24,74 34,74 L 45,74"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,89L162,89A15 15 0 0 0 177 74L177,74A15 15 0 0 0 162 59L66,59A15 15 0 0 0 50 74L50,74A15 15 0 0 0 66 89Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="114" y="74" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">schema-name</text>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='xfd9a9f7b' onclick='hideorshow("xfd9a9f7b","x9b164881")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x9b164881' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x621e3302' onclick='hideorshow("x621e3302","xc7e8a8b1")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xc7e8a8b1' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>


<p> The ATTACH DATABASE statement adds another database 
file to the current <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a>. 
Database files that were previously attached can be removed using
the <a href="lang_detach.html">DETACH DATABASE</a> command.

</p><h1 id="details"><span>2. </span>Details</h1>

<p>The filename for the database to be attached is the value of
the expression that occurs before the AS keyword.
The filename of the database follows the same semantics as the
filename argument to <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open()</a> and <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open_v2()</a>; the
special name "<a href="inmemorydb.html">:memory:</a>" results in an <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory database</a> and an
empty string results in a new temporary database.
The filename argument can be a <a href="uri.html">URI filename</a> if URI filename processing
is enabled on the database connection.  The default behavior is for
URI filenames to be disabled, however that might change in a future release
of SQLite, so application developers are advised to plan accordingly.

</p><p>The name that occurs after the AS keyword is the name of the database
used internally by SQLite.
The schema-names 'main' and 
'temp' refer to the main database and the database used for 
temporary tables.  The main and temp databases cannot be attached or
detached.</p>

<p> Tables in an attached database can be referred to using the syntax 
<i>schema-name.table-name</i>.  If the name of the table is unique
across all attached databases and the main and temp databases, then the
<i>schema-name</i> prefix is not required.  If two or more tables in
different databases have the same name and the 
<i>schema-name</i> prefix is not used on a table reference, then the
table chosen is the one in the database that was least recently attached.</p>

<p>
Transactions involving multiple attached databases are atomic,
assuming that the main database is not "<a href="inmemorydb.html">:memory:</a>" and the 
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">journal_mode</a> is not <a href="wal.html">WAL</a>.  If the main
database is ":memory:" or if the journal_mode is WAL, then 
transactions continue to be atomic within each individual
database file. But if the host computer crashes in the middle
of a <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> where two or more database files are updated,
some of those files might get the changes where others
might not.
</p>

<p> There is a limit, set using <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit()</a> and 
<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitattached">SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED</a>, to the number of databases that can be
simultaneously attached to a single database connection.</p>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_attach.in?m=ef45743b34">2023-12-05 14:43:20</a> UTC </small></i></p>

Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_comment.html.

















































































































































































































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<!DOCTYPE html>
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SQL Comment Syntax
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<p><b><a href="syntax/comment-syntax.html">comment-syntax:</a></b>
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<p>Comments are not SQL commands, but can occur within the text of
SQL queries passed to <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare_v2()</a> and related interfaces.
Comments are treated as whitespace by the parser.
Comments can begin anywhere whitespace 
can be found, including inside expressions that span multiple lines.
</p>

<p>SQL comments begin with two consecutive "-" characters (ASCII 0x2d)
and extend up to and including the next newline character (ASCII 0x0a)
or until the end of input, whichever comes first.</p>

<p>C-style comments begin
with "/*" and extend up to and including the next "*/" character pair
or until the end of input, whichever comes first.  C-style comments
can span multiple lines. </p>

<p>Comments can appear anywhere whitespace can occur,
including inside expressions and in the middle of other SQL statements.
Comments do not nest.
</p>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_comment.in?m=3ef91cf3ff">2022-01-08 05:02:57</a> UTC </small></i></p>

Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_conflict.html.






































































































































































































































































































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The ON CONFLICT Clause
</div>
</div>




<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
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<text x="327" y="36" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ROLLBACK</text>
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<p>The ON CONFLICT clause is a
non-standard extension specific to SQLite 
that can appear in many other SQL commands.
It is given its own section in this document because it is not
part of standard SQL and therefore might not be familiar.</p>

<p>The ON CONFLICT clause described here has been a part of
SQLite since before version 3.0.0 (2004-06-18).  The phrase
"ON&nbsp;CONFLICT" is also part of <a href="lang_upsert.html">UPSERT</a>, which is an extension
to <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> added in version 3.24.0 (2018-06-04).  Do not
confuse these two separate uses of the "ON&nbsp;CONFLICT" phrase.

</p><p>The syntax for the ON CONFLICT clause is as shown above for
the CREATE TABLE command.  For the INSERT and
UPDATE commands, the keywords "ON CONFLICT" are replaced by "OR" so that
the syntax reads more naturally.  For example, instead of
"INSERT ON CONFLICT IGNORE" we have "INSERT OR IGNORE".
The keywords change but the meaning of the clause is the same
either way.</p>

<p>The ON CONFLICT clause applies to <a href="lang_createtable.html#uniqueconst">UNIQUE</a>, <a href="lang_createtable.html#notnullconst">NOT NULL</a>,
<a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK</a>, and <a href="lang_createtable.html#primkeyconst">PRIMARY KEY</a> constraints.
The ON CONFLICT algorithm does not
apply to <a href="foreignkeys.html">FOREIGN KEY constraints</a>.
There are five conflict resolution algorithm choices:
ROLLBACK, ABORT, FAIL, IGNORE, and REPLACE.
The default conflict resolution algorithm is ABORT.  This
is what they mean:</p>

<dl>
<dt><b>ROLLBACK</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the ROLLBACK
resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement with
an SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error and rolls back the current transaction.
If no transaction is
active (other than the implied transaction that is created on every
command) then the ROLLBACK resolution algorithm works the same as the
ABORT algorithm.</p></dd>

<dt><b>ABORT</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the ABORT
resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement
with an SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error and backs out any changes
made by the current SQL statement; but changes caused
by prior SQL statements within the same transaction are preserved and the
transaction remains active.
This is the default behavior and the behavior specified by the SQL
standard.</p></dd>

<dt><b>FAIL</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the FAIL
resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement with an
SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error.  But the FAIL resolution does not
back out prior changes of the SQL statement that failed nor does
it end the transaction.
For example, if an UPDATE
statement encountered a constraint violation on the 100th row that
it attempts to update, then the first 99 row changes are preserved
but changes to rows 100 and beyond never occur.</p>

<p>The FAIL behavior only works for uniqueness, NOT NULL, and CHECK 
constraints.  A <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> violation causes an ABORT.
</p></dd>

<dt><b>IGNORE</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, 
the IGNORE resolution algorithm skips the one row that contains
the constraint violation and continues processing subsequent rows
of the SQL statement as if nothing went wrong.
Other rows before and after the row that
contained the constraint violation are inserted or updated
normally. No error is returned for uniqueness, NOT NULL, and
UNIQUE constraint errors when the IGNORE conflict resolution
algorithm is used.  However, the IGNORE conflict resolution
algorithm works like ABORT for <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> errors.
</p>
</dd>

<dt><b>REPLACE</b></dt>
<dd><p> When a <a href="lang_createtable.html#uniqueconst">UNIQUE</a> or <a href="lang_createtable.html#primkeyconst">PRIMARY KEY</a> constraint violation occurs, 
the REPLACE algorithm
deletes pre-existing rows that are causing the constraint violation
prior to inserting or updating the current row and the command continues 
executing normally.
If a <a href="lang_createtable.html#notnullconst">NOT NULL</a> constraint violation occurs, the REPLACE conflict
resolution replaces the NULL value with
the default value for that column, or if the column has no default
value, then the ABORT algorithm is used.
If a <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a> or <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> violation occurs, 
the REPLACE conflict resolution algorithm works like ABORT.</p>

<p>When the REPLACE conflict resolution strategy deletes rows in order to
satisfy a constraint, <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">delete triggers</a> fire if and only if
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_recursive_triggers">recursive triggers</a> are enabled.</p>

<p>The <a href="c3ref/update_hook.html">update hook</a> is not invoked for rows that
are deleted by the REPLACE conflict resolution strategy.  Nor does
REPLACE increment the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">change counter</a>.
The exceptional behaviors defined in this paragraph might change 
in a future release.</p>
</dd></dl>

<p>The algorithm specified in the OR clause of an INSERT or UPDATE
overrides any algorithm specified in a CREATE TABLE.
If no algorithm is specified anywhere, the ABORT algorithm is used.</p>


Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_corefunc.html.

































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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Built-In Scalar SQL Functions
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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>

<p>The core functions shown below are available by default. 
<a href="lang_datefunc.html">Date &amp; Time functions</a>,
<a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate functions</a>,
<a href="windowfunctions.html">window functions</a>,
<a href="lang_mathfunc.html">math functions</a>, and
<a href="json1.html">JSON functions</a> are documented separately.  An
application may define additional
functions written in C and added to the database engine using
the <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> API.</p>

<p><b><a href="syntax/simple-function-invocation.html">simple-function-invocation:</a></b></p><div class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:414px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 414.49 126.792">
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<path d="M47,70L126,70A15 15 0 0 0 141 55A15 15 0 0 0 126 39L47,39A15 15 0 0 0 32 55A15 15 0 0 0 47 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="86" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">simple-func</text>
<polygon points="164,55 152,59 152,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M141,55L158,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M179,70A15 15 0 0 0 194 55A15 15 0 0 0 179 39A15 15 0 0 0 164 55A15 15 0 0 0 179 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="179" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<text x="273" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<text x="366" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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</div>
 </div>


<p>
See the <a href="lang_expr.html#*funcinexpr">functions within expressions</a> documentation for
more information about how SQL function invocations fit into the context
of an SQL expression.

</p><h1 id="list_of_core_functions"><span>2. </span>List Of Core Functions</h1>

<p>
<div class='columns' style='columns: 15em auto;'>
<ul style='padding-top:0;'>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#abs'>abs(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#changes'>changes()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#char'>char(X1,X2,...,XN)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#coalesce'>coalesce(X,Y,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#concat'>concat(X,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#concat_ws'>concat_ws(SEP,X,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#format'>format(FORMAT,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#glob'>glob(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#hex'>hex(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#ifnull'>ifnull(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#iif'>iif(X,Y,Z)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#instr'>instr(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#last_insert_rowid'>last_insert_rowid()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#length'>length(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#like'>like(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#like'>like(X,Y,Z)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#likelihood'>likelihood(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#likely'>likely(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#load_extension'>load_extension(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#load_extension'>load_extension(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#lower'>lower(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#ltrim'>ltrim(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#ltrim'>ltrim(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#max_scalar'>max(X,Y,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#min_scalar'>min(X,Y,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#nullif'>nullif(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#octet_length'>octet_length(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#printf'>printf(FORMAT,...)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#quote'>quote(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#random'>random()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#randomblob'>randomblob(N)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#replace'>replace(X,Y,Z)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#round'>round(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#round'>round(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#rtrim'>rtrim(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#rtrim'>rtrim(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sign'>sign(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#soundex'>soundex(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_compileoption_get'>sqlite_compileoption_get(N)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_compileoption_used'>sqlite_compileoption_used(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_offset'>sqlite_offset(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_source_id'>sqlite_source_id()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_version'>sqlite_version()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#substr'>substr(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#substr'>substr(X,Y,Z)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#substr'>substring(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#substr'>substring(X,Y,Z)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#total_changes'>total_changes()</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#trim'>trim(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#trim'>trim(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#typeof'>typeof(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#unhex'>unhex(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#unhex'>unhex(X,Y)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#unicode'>unicode(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#unlikely'>unlikely(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#upper'>upper(X)</a></li>
<li><a href='lang_corefunc.html#zeroblob'>zeroblob(N)</a></li>
</ul>
</div>


<h1 id="descriptions_of_built_in_scalar_sql_functions"><span>3. </span>Descriptions of built-in scalar SQL functions</h1>
<dl>

<a name="abs"></a>
<dt><p><b>abs(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The abs(X) function returns the absolute value of the numeric
  argument X.  Abs(X) returns NULL if X is NULL.
  Abs(X) returns 0.0 if X is a string or blob
  that cannot be converted to a numeric value.  If X is the
  integer -9223372036854775808 then abs(X) throws an integer overflow
  error since there is no equivalent positive 64-bit two complement value.
</dd>
<a name="changes"></a>
<dt><p><b>changes()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The changes() function returns the number of database rows that were changed
  or inserted or deleted by the most recently completed INSERT, DELETE,
  or UPDATE statement, exclusive of statements in lower-level triggers.
  The changes() SQL function is a wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes64()</a>
  C/C++ function and hence follows the same rules for counting changes.
</dd>
<a name="char"></a>
<dt><p><b>char(<i>X1</i>,<i>X2</i>,...,<i>XN</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The char(X1,X2,...,XN) function returns a string composed of characters having the
   unicode code point values of integers X1 through XN, respectively.
</dd>
<a name="coalesce"></a>
<dt><p><b>coalesce(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The coalesce() function returns a copy of its first non-NULL argument, or
  NULL if all arguments are NULL.  Coalesce() must have at least 
  2 arguments.
</dd>
<a name="concat"></a>
<dt><p><b>concat(<i>X</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The concat(...) function returns a string which is the concatenation of the
  string representation of all of its non-NULL arguments.  If all arguments are
  NULL, then concat() returns an empty string.
</dd>
<a name="concat_ws"></a>
<dt><p><b>concat_ws(<i>SEP</i>,<i>X</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The concat_ws(SEP,...) function returns a string that is the concatenation of
  all non-null arguments beyond the first argument, using the text value of the
  first argument as a separator.  If the first argument is NULL, then concat_ws()
  returns NULL.  If all arguments other than the first are NULL, then concat_ws()
  returns an empty string.
</dd>
<a name="format"></a>
<dt><p><b>format(<i>FORMAT</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The format(FORMAT,...) SQL function works like the <a href="c3ref/mprintf.html">sqlite3_mprintf()</a> C-language
  function and the printf() function from the standard C library.
  The first argument is a format string that specifies how to construct the output
  string using values taken from subsequent arguments.  If the FORMAT argument is
  missing or NULL then the result is NULL.  The %n format is silently ignored and
  does not consume an argument.  The %p format is an alias for %X.  The %z format
  is interchangeable with %s.  If there are too few arguments in the argument list,
  missing arguments are assumed to have a NULL value, which is translated into
  0 or 0.0 for numeric formats or an empty string for %s.  See the
  <a href="printf.html">built-in printf()</a> documentation for additional information.
</dd>
<a name="glob"></a>
<dt><p><b>glob(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The glob(X,Y) function is equivalent to the
  expression "<b>Y GLOB X</b>".
  Note that the X and Y arguments are reversed in the glob() function
  relative to the infix <a href="lang_expr.html#glob">GLOB</a> operator.  Y is the string and X is the
  pattern.  So, for example, the following expressions are equivalent:
  <blockquote><pre>
     name GLOB '*helium*'
     glob('*helium*',name)
  </pre></blockquote>
  <p>If the <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface is used to
  override the glob(X,Y) function with an alternative implementation then
  the <a href="lang_expr.html#glob">GLOB</a> operator will invoke the alternative implementation.
</dd>
<a name="hex"></a>
<dt><p><b>hex(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The hex() function interprets its argument as a BLOB and returns
  a string which is the upper-case hexadecimal rendering of the content of
  that blob.
  <p>
  If the argument <i>X</i> in "hex(<i>X</i>)" is an
  integer or floating point number, then "interprets its argument as a BLOB" means
  that the binary number is first converted into a UTF8 text representation, then
  that text is interpreted as a BLOB.  Hence, "hex(12345678)" renders
  as "3132333435363738" not the binary representation of the integer value
  "0000000000BC614E".
  <p>
  See also:  <a href="lang_corefunc.html#unhex">unhex()</a>
</dd>
<a name="ifnull"></a>
<dt><p><b>ifnull(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The ifnull() function returns a copy of its first non-NULL argument, or
  NULL if both arguments are NULL.  Ifnull() must have exactly 2 arguments.
  The ifnull() function is equivalent to <a href="lang_corefunc.html#coalesce">coalesce()</a> with two arguments.
</dd>
<a name="iif"></a>
<dt><p><b>iif(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The iif(X,Y,Z) function returns the value Y if X is true, and Z otherwise.
  The iif(X,Y,Z) function is logically equivalent to and generates the same
  <a href="opcode.html">bytecode</a> as the <a href="lang_expr.html#case">CASE expression</a> "CASE WHEN X THEN Y ELSE Z END".
</dd>
<a name="instr"></a>
<dt><p><b>instr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The instr(X,Y) function finds the first occurrence of string Y within 
  string X and returns the number of prior characters plus 1, or 0 if
  Y is nowhere found within X.
  Or, if X and Y are both BLOBs, then instr(X,Y) returns one
  more than the number bytes prior to the first occurrence of Y, or 0 if
  Y does not occur anywhere within X.
  If both arguments X and Y to instr(X,Y) are non-NULL and are not BLOBs
  then both are interpreted as strings.
  If either X or Y are NULL in instr(X,Y) then the result is NULL.
</dd>
<a name="last_insert_rowid"></a>
<dt><p><b>last_insert_rowid()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The last_insert_rowid() function returns the <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">ROWID</a>
  of the last row insert from the database connection which invoked the
  function.
  The last_insert_rowid() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/last_insert_rowid.html">sqlite3_last_insert_rowid()</a> C/C++ interface function.
</dd>
<a name="length"></a>
<dt><p><b>length(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  For a string value X, the length(X) function returns the number of 
  characters (not bytes) in X prior to the first NUL character.
  Since SQLite strings do not normally contain NUL characters, the length(X)
  function will usually return the total number of characters in the string X.
  For a blob value X, length(X) returns the number of bytes in the blob.
  If X is NULL then length(X) is NULL.
  If X is numeric then length(X) returns the length of a string
  representation of X.
  <p>
  Note that for strings, the length(X) function returns the <i>character</i>
  length of the string, not the byte length.  The character length is the number
  of characters in the string.  The character length is always different from
  the byte length for UTF-16 strings, and can be different from the byte length
  for UTF-8 strings if the string contains multi-byte characters.  Use the
  <a href="lang_corefunc.html#octet_length">octet_length()</a> function to find the byte length of a string.
  <p>
  For BLOB values, length(X) always returns the byte-length of the BLOB.
  <p>
  For string values, length(X) must read the entire string into memory in order
  to compute the character length.  But for BLOB values, that is not necessary as
  SQLite knows how many bytes are in the BLOB.  Hence, for multi-megabyte values,
  the length(X) function is usually much faster for BLOBs than for strings, since
  it does not need to load the value into memory.
</dd>
<a name="like"></a>
<dt><p><b>like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The like() function is used to implement the
  "<b>Y LIKE X &#91;ESCAPE Z&#93;</b>" expression. 
  If the optional ESCAPE clause is present, then the
  like() function is invoked with three arguments.  Otherwise, it is
  invoked with two arguments only. Note that the X and Y parameters are
  reversed in the like() function relative to the infix <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator.
  X is the pattern and Y is the string to match against that pattern.
  Hence, the following expressions are equivalent:
  <blockquote><pre>
     name LIKE '%neon%'
     like('%neon%',name)
  </pre></blockquote>
  <p>The <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface can be used to override the
  like() function and thereby change the operation of the
  <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator.  When overriding the like() function, it may be important
  to override both the two and three argument versions of the like() 
  function. Otherwise, different code may be called to implement the
  <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator depending on whether or not an ESCAPE clause was 
  specified.
</dd>
<a name="likelihood"></a>
<dt><p><b>likelihood(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The likelihood(X,Y) function returns argument X unchanged.
  The value Y in likelihood(X,Y) must be a floating point constant
  between 0.0 and 1.0, inclusive.
  The likelihood(X) function is a no-op that the code generator
  optimizes away so that it consumes no CPU cycles during run-time
  (that is, during calls to <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>).
  The purpose of the likelihood(X,Y) function is to provide a hint
  to the query planner that the argument X is a boolean that is
  true with a probability of approximately Y.
  The <a href="lang_corefunc.html#unlikely">unlikely(X)</a> function is short-hand for likelihood(X,0.0625).
  The <a href="lang_corefunc.html#likely">likely(X)</a> function is short-hand for likelihood(X,0.9375).
</dd>
<a name="likely"></a>
<dt><p><b>likely(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The likely(X) function returns the argument X unchanged.
  The likely(X) function is a no-op that the code generator
  optimizes away so that it consumes no CPU cycles at
  run-time (that is, during calls to <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>).
  The purpose of the likely(X) function is to provide a hint
  to the query planner that the argument X is a boolean value
  that is usually true. The likely(X) function is equivalent
  to <a href="lang_corefunc.html#likelihood">likelihood</a>(X,0.9375). See also: <a href="lang_corefunc.html#unlikely">unlikely(X)</a>.
</dd>
<a name="load_extension"></a>
<dt><p><b>load_extension(<i>X</i>)<br />load_extension(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The load_extension(X,Y) function loads <a href="loadext.html">SQLite extensions</a> out of the shared
  library file named X using the entry point Y.  The result of load_extension()
  is always a NULL.  If Y is omitted then the default entry point name is used.
  The load_extension() function raises an exception if the extension fails to
  load or initialize correctly.

  <p>The load_extension() function will fail if the extension attempts to 
  modify or delete an SQL function or collating sequence.  The
  extension can add new functions or collating sequences, but cannot
  modify or delete existing functions or collating sequences because
  those functions and/or collating sequences might be used elsewhere
  in the currently running SQL statement.  To load an extension that
  changes or deletes functions or collating sequences, use the
  <a href="c3ref/load_extension.html">sqlite3_load_extension()</a> C-language API.</p>

  <p>For security reasons, extension loading is disabled by default and must
  be enabled by a prior call to <a href="c3ref/enable_load_extension.html">sqlite3_enable_load_extension()</a>.</p>
</dd>
<a name="lower"></a>
<dt><p><b>lower(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The lower(X) function returns a copy of string X with all ASCII characters
  converted to lower case.  The default built-in lower() function works
  for ASCII characters only.  To do case conversions on non-ASCII
  characters, load the ICU extension.
</dd>
<a name="ltrim"></a>
<dt><p><b>ltrim(<i>X</i>)<br />ltrim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The ltrim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from the left side of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, ltrim(X) removes spaces from the left side
  of X.
</dd>
<a name="max_scalar"></a>
<dt><p><b>max(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The multi-argument max() function returns the argument with the 
  maximum value, or return NULL if any argument is NULL. 
  The multi-argument max() function searches its arguments from left to right
  for an argument that defines a collating function and uses that collating
  function for all string comparisons.  If none of the arguments to max()
  define a collating function, then the BINARY collating function is used.
  Note that <b>max()</b> is a simple function when
  it has 2 or more arguments but operates as an
  <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">aggregate function</a> if given only a single argument.
</dd>
<a name="min_scalar"></a>
<dt><p><b>min(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The multi-argument min() function returns the argument with the
  minimum value.
  The multi-argument min() function searches its arguments from left to right
  for an argument that defines a collating function and uses that collating
  function for all string comparisons.  If none of the arguments to min()
  define a collating function, then the BINARY collating function is used.
  Note that <b>min()</b> is a simple function when
  it has 2 or more arguments but operates as an 
  <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">aggregate function</a> if given
  only a single argument.
</dd>
<a name="nullif"></a>
<dt><p><b>nullif(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The nullif(X,Y) function returns its first argument if the arguments are
  different and NULL if the arguments are the same.  The nullif(X,Y) function
  searches its arguments from left to right for an argument that defines a
  collating function and uses that collating function for all string
  comparisons.  If neither argument to nullif() defines a collating function
  then the BINARY collating function is used.
</dd>
<a name="octet_length"></a>
<dt><p><b>octet_length(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The octet_length(X) function returns the number of bytes in the encoding
  of text string X.  If X is NULL then octet_length(X) returns NULL.  If X is
  a BLOB value, then octet_length(X) is the same as <a href="lang_corefunc.html#length">length(X)</a>.  If X is a
  numeric value, then octet_length(X) returns the number of bytes in a text
  rendering of that number.
  <p>
  Because octet_length(X) returns the number of bytes in X, not the number
  of characters, the value returned depends on the database encoding.  The
  octet_length() function can return different answers for the same input string
  if the database encoding is UTF16 instead of UTF8.
  <p>
  If argument X is a table column and the value is of type text or blob,
  then octet_length(X) avoids reading the content of X from disk, as the byte
  length can be computed from metadata.  Thus, octet_length(X) is efficient
  even if X is a column containing a multi-megabyte text or blob value.
</dd>
<a name="printf"></a>
<dt><p><b>printf(<i>FORMAT</i>,...)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The printf() SQL function is an alias for the <a href="lang_corefunc.html#format">format() SQL function</a>.
  The format() SQL function was originally named printf(). But the name was
  later changed to format() for compatibility with other database engines.
  The printf() name is retained as an alias so as not to break legacy code.
</dd>
<a name="quote"></a>
<dt><p><b>quote(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The quote(X) function returns the text of an SQL literal which
  is the value of its argument suitable for inclusion into an SQL statement.
  Strings are surrounded by single-quotes with escapes on interior quotes
  as needed.  BLOBs are encoded as hexadecimal literals.
  Strings with embedded NUL characters cannot be represented as string
  literals in SQL and hence the returned string literal is truncated prior
  to the first NUL.
</dd>
<a name="random"></a>
<dt><p><b>random()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The random() function returns a pseudo-random integer
  between -9223372036854775808 and +9223372036854775807.
</dd>
<a name="randomblob"></a>
<dt><p><b>randomblob(<i>N</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The randomblob(N) function return an N-byte blob containing pseudo-random
  bytes. If N is less than 1 then a 1-byte random blob is returned.

  <p>Hint:  applications can generate globally unique identifiers
  using this function together with <a href="lang_corefunc.html#hex">hex()</a> and/or
  <a href="lang_corefunc.html#lower">lower()</a> like this:</p>

  <blockquote>
  hex(randomblob(16))<br></br>
  lower(hex(randomblob(16)))
  </blockquote>
</dd>
<a name="replace"></a>
<dt><p><b>replace(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The replace(X,Y,Z) function returns a string formed by substituting
  string Z for every occurrence of string Y in string X.  The <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a>
  collating sequence is used for comparisons.  If Y is an empty
  string then return X unchanged.  If Z is not initially
  a string, it is cast to a UTF-8 string prior to processing.
</dd>
<a name="round"></a>
<dt><p><b>round(<i>X</i>)<br />round(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The round(X,Y) function returns a floating-point
  value X rounded to Y digits to the right of the decimal point.
  If the Y argument is omitted or negative, it is taken to be 0.
</dd>
<a name="rtrim"></a>
<dt><p><b>rtrim(<i>X</i>)<br />rtrim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The rtrim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from the right side of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, rtrim(X) removes spaces from the right
  side of X.
</dd>
<a name="sign"></a>
<dt><p><b>sign(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sign(X) function returns -1, 0, or +1 if the argument X is a numeric
  value that is negative, zero, or positive, respectively.  If the argument
  to sign(X) is NULL or is a string or blob that cannot be losslessly converted
  into a number, then sign(X) returns NULL.
</dd>
<a name="soundex"></a>
<dt><p><b>soundex(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The soundex(X) function returns a string that is the soundex encoding 
  of the string X.
  The string "?000" is returned if the argument is NULL or contains
  no ASCII alphabetic characters.
  This function is omitted from SQLite by default.
  It is only available if the <a href="compile.html#soundex">SQLITE_SOUNDEX</a> compile-time option
  is used when SQLite is built.
</dd>
<a name="sqlite_compileoption_get"></a>
<dt><p><b>sqlite_compileoption_get(<i>N</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sqlite_compileoption_get() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/compileoption_get.html">sqlite3_compileoption_get()</a> C/C++ function.
  This routine returns the N-th compile-time option used to build SQLite
  or NULL if N is out of range.  See also the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_compile_options">compile_options pragma</a>.
</dd>
<a name="sqlite_compileoption_used"></a>
<dt><p><b>sqlite_compileoption_used(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sqlite_compileoption_used() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/compileoption_get.html">sqlite3_compileoption_used()</a> C/C++ function.
  When the argument X to sqlite_compileoption_used(X) is a string which
  is the name of a compile-time option, this routine returns true (1) or
  false (0) depending on whether or not that option was used during the
  build.
</dd>
<a name="sqlite_offset"></a>
<dt><p><b>sqlite_offset(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sqlite_offset(X) function returns the byte offset in the database
  file for the beginning of the record from which value would be read.
  If X is not a column in an ordinary table, then sqlite_offset(X) returns
  NULL.  The value returned by sqlite_offset(X) might reference either the
  original table or an index, depending on the query.  If the value X would
  normally be extracted from an index, the sqlite_offset(X) returns the
  offset to the corresponding index record.  If the value X would be
  extracted from the original table, then sqlite_offset(X) returns the offset
  to the table record.

  <p>The sqlite_offset(X) SQL function is only available if SQLite is built
  using the <a href="compile.html#enable_offset_sql_func">-DSQLITE_ENABLE_OFFSET_SQL_FUNC</a> compile-time option.
</dd>
<a name="sqlite_source_id"></a>
<dt><p><b>sqlite_source_id()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sqlite_source_id() function returns a string that identifies the
  specific version of the source code that was used to build the SQLite
  library.  The string returned by sqlite_source_id() is
  the date and time that the source code was checked in followed by
  the SHA3-256 hash for that check-in.  This function is
  an SQL wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/libversion.html">sqlite3_sourceid()</a> C interface.
</dd>
<a name="sqlite_version"></a>
<dt><p><b>sqlite_version()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The sqlite_version() function returns the version string for the SQLite
  library that is running.  This function is an SQL
  wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/libversion.html">sqlite3_libversion()</a> C-interface.
</dd>
<a name="substr"></a>
<dt><p><b>substr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)<br />substr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />substring(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)<br />substring(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The substr(X,Y,Z) function returns a substring of input string X that begins
  with the Y-th character and which is Z characters long.
  If Z is omitted then substr(X,Y) returns all characters through the end
  of the string X beginning with the Y-th.
  The left-most character of X is number 1.  If Y is negative
  then the first character of the substring is found by counting from the
  right rather than the left.  If Z is negative then
  the abs(Z) characters preceding the Y-th character are returned.
  If X is a string then characters indices refer to actual UTF-8 
  characters.  If X is a BLOB then the indices refer to bytes.
  <p>
  "substring()" is an alias for "substr()" beginning with SQLite version 3.34.
</dd>
<a name="total_changes"></a>
<dt><p><b>total_changes()</b></dt><dd><p>
  The total_changes() function returns the number of row changes
  caused by INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE
  statements since the current database connection was opened.
  This function is a wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes64()</a>
  C/C++ interface.
</dd>
<a name="trim"></a>
<dt><p><b>trim(<i>X</i>)<br />trim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The trim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from both ends of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, trim(X) removes spaces from both ends of X.
</dd>
<a name="typeof"></a>
<dt><p><b>typeof(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The typeof(X) function returns a string that indicates the <a href="datatype3.html">datatype</a> of
  the expression X: "null", "integer", "real", "text", or "blob".
</dd>
<a name="unhex"></a>
<dt><p><b>unhex(<i>X</i>)<br />unhex(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The unhex(X,Y) function returns a BLOB value which is the decoding of the
  hexadecimal string X.  If X contains any
  characters that are not hexadecimal digits and which are not in Y, 
  then unhex(X,Y) returns NULL. If Y is omitted, it is
  understood to be an empty string and hence X must be a pure hexadecimal string.
  All hexadecimal digits in X must occur in pairs, with both digits of each
  pair beginning immediately adjacent to one another, or else unhex(X,Y)
  returns NULL.
  If either parameter X or Y is NULL, then unhex(X,Y) returns NULL.
  The X input may contain an arbitrary mix of upper and lower case hexadecimal
  digits.
  Hexadecimal digits in Y have no affect on the translation of X.  Only
  characters in Y that are not hexadecimal digits are ignored in X.
  <p>
  See also:  <a href="lang_corefunc.html#hex">hex()</a>
</dd>
<a name="unicode"></a>
<dt><p><b>unicode(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The unicode(X) function returns the numeric unicode code point corresponding to
  the first character of the string X.  If the argument to unicode(X) is not a string
  then the result is undefined.
</dd>
<a name="unlikely"></a>
<dt><p><b>unlikely(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The unlikely(X) function returns the argument X unchanged.
  The unlikely(X) function is a no-op that the code generator
  optimizes away so that it consumes no CPU cycles at
  run-time (that is, during calls to <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>).
  The purpose of the unlikely(X) function is to provide a hint
  to the query planner that the argument X is a boolean value
  that is usually not true. The unlikely(X) function is equivalent
  to <a href="lang_corefunc.html#likelihood">likelihood</a>(X, 0.0625).
</dd>
<a name="upper"></a>
<dt><p><b>upper(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The upper(X) function returns a copy of input string X in which all 
  lower-case ASCII characters are converted to their upper-case equivalent.
</dd>
<a name="zeroblob"></a>
<dt><p><b>zeroblob(<i>N</i>)</b></dt><dd><p>
  The zeroblob(N) function returns a BLOB consisting of N bytes of 0x00.
  SQLite manages these zeroblobs very efficiently.  Zeroblobs can be used to
  reserve space for a BLOB that is later written using 
  <a href="c3ref/blob_open.html">incremental BLOB I/O</a>.
  This SQL function is implemented using the <a href="c3ref/result_blob.html">sqlite3_result_zeroblob()</a>
  routine from the C/C++ interface.
</dd>

</dl>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_corefunc.in?m=a451f26240">2023-12-05 14:43:20</a> UTC </small></i></p>

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CREATE INDEX
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<h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1>
<p><b><a href="syntax/create-index-stmt.html">create-index-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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 <div id='xf485ce62' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x96fb8351' onclick='hideorshow("x96fb8351","x3e1019c7")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x738059c4' onclick='hideorshow("x738059c4","x70712042")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x70712042' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xa27ee355' onclick='hideorshow("xa27ee355","x5336e884")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x5336e884' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x65673da4' onclick='hideorshow("x65673da4","x6935c1a0")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6935c1a0' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x884c1486' onclick='hideorshow("x884c1486","xfe21b31a")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xfe21b31a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:293px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 293.842 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,17 56,21 56,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M32,17L62,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M83,32L127,32A15 15 0 0 0 142 17A15 15 0 0 0 127 2L83,2A15 15 0 0 0 68 17A15 15 0 0 0 83 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="105" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="105" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
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<text x="125" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INTERSECT</text>
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<text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text>
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<path d="M142,55L159,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text>
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<circle cx="288" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M32,17 L 39,17 Q 47,17 47,32 L 47,40 Q 47,55 55,55 L 62,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M142,17L276,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,92 56,97 56,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M47,39 L 47,77 Q 47,92 55,92 L 62,92"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M183,92L227,92"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M233,92 L 240,92 Q 248,92 248,77 L 248,54 L 248,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M233,130 L 240,130 Q 248,130 248,115 L 248,92 L 248,77"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x131a757e' onclick='hideorshow("x131a757e","xaecfe1cf")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xaecfe1cf' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24">
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<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M380,47L397,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M564,47L581,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
<polygon points="783,17 772,21 772,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
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<path d="M193,17L478,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x3d0ceebb' onclick='hideorshow("x3d0ceebb","xe35ea308")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xe35ea308' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text>
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<path d="M120,55L137,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M173,55L203,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
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<path d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
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<path d="M90,17L107,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x6fb1d7fe' onclick='hideorshow("x6fb1d7fe","x8ac3c307")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x8ac3c307' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text>
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<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="259" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LEFT</text>
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<path d="M393,86L437,86A15 15 0 0 0 452 71A15 15 0 0 0 437 56L393,56A15 15 0 0 0 378 71A15 15 0 0 0 393 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="415" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OUTER</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x820908be' onclick='hideorshow("x820908be","x6f61633b")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6f61633b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x5f528ff0' onclick='hideorshow("x5f528ff0","xc8659183")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xc8659183' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:398px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 398.054 163.08">
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<path d="M9,17L39,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="69" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M151,70L155,70A15 15 0 0 0 170 55L170,55A15 15 0 0 0 155 39L151,39A15 15 0 0 0 136 55L136,55A15 15 0 0 0 151 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M153,85 L 170,85 Q 185,85 185,70 L 185,70 Q 185,55 192,55 L 200,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="66" y="108" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">*</text>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='xbc3c2934' onclick='hideorshow("xbc3c2934","xaac981d0")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xaac981d0' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M66,89L162,89A15 15 0 0 0 177 74L177,74A15 15 0 0 0 162 59L66,59A15 15 0 0 0 50 74L50,74A15 15 0 0 0 66 89Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="114" y="74" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">schema-name</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column:</a></b>
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<path d="M66,32L160,32A15 15 0 0 0 175 17A15 15 0 0 0 160 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p>The CREATE INDEX command consists of the keywords "CREATE INDEX" followed
by the name of the new index, the keyword "ON", the name of a previously
created table that is to be indexed, and a parenthesized list of table column
names and/or expressions that are used for the index key.
If the optional WHERE clause is included, then the index is a "<a href="partialindex.html">partial index</a>".
</p>

<p>If the optional IF NOT EXISTS clause is present and another index
with the same name already exists, then this command becomes a no-op.</p>

<p>There are no arbitrary limits on the number of indices that can be
attached to a single table.  The number of columns in an index is 
limited to the value set by
<a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit</a>(<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitcolumn">SQLITE_LIMIT_COLUMN</a>,...).</p>

<p>Indexes are removed with the <a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a> command.</p>

<a name="uniqueidx"></a>

<h2 id="unique_indexes"><span>1.1. </span>Unique Indexes</h2>

<p>If the UNIQUE keyword appears between CREATE and INDEX then duplicate
index entries are not allowed.  Any attempt to insert a duplicate entry
will result in an error.</p>

<p>For the purposes of unique indices, all NULL values
are considered different from all other NULL values and are thus unique.
This is one of the two possible interpretations of the SQL-92 standard
(the language in the standard is ambiguous).  The interpretation used
by SQLite is the same and is the interpretation
followed by PostgreSQL, MySQL, Firebird, and Oracle.  Informix and
Microsoft SQL Server follow the other interpretation of the standard, which
is that all NULL values are equal to one another.</p>

<a name="indexexpr"></a>

<h2 id="indexes_on_expressions"><span>1.2. </span>Indexes on Expressions</h2>

<p>Expressions in an index may not reference other tables
and may not use subqueries nor functions whose result might
change (ex: <a href="lang_corefunc.html#random">random()</a> or <a href="lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_version">sqlite_version()</a>).
Expressions in an index may only refer to columns in the table
that is being indexed.
Indexes on expression will not work with versions of SQLite prior
to <a href="releaselog/3_9_0.html">version 3.9.0</a> (2015-10-14).
See the <a href="expridx.html">Indexes On Expressions</a> document for additional information
about using general expressions in CREATE INDEX statements.

<a name="descidx"></a>

</p><h2 id="descending_indexes"><span>1.3. </span>Descending Indexes</h2>

<p>Each column name or expression can be followed by one
of the "ASC" or "DESC" keywords to indicate sort order.
The sort order may or may not be ignored depending
on the database file format, and in particular the <a href="fileformat2.html#schemaformat">schema format number</a>.
The "legacy" schema format (1) ignores index
sort order.  The descending index schema format (4) takes index sort order
into account.  Only versions of SQLite 3.3.0 (2006-01-11)
and later are able to understand
the descending index format. For compatibility, version of SQLite between 3.3.0
and 3.7.9 use the legacy schema format by default.  The newer schema format is
used by default in version 3.7.10 (2012-01-16) and later.
The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_file_format">legacy_file_format pragma</a> can be used to change set the specific
behavior for any version of SQLite.</p>

<h2 id="nulls_first_and_nulls_last"><span>1.4. </span>NULLS FIRST and NULLS LAST</h2>

<p>The NULLS FIRST and NULLS LAST predicates are not supported
for indexes.  For <a href="datatype3.html#sortorder">sorting purposes</a>, SQLite considers NULL values 
to be smaller than all other values.  Hence NULL values always appear at
the beginning of an ASC index and at the end of a DESC index.</p>

<a name="collidx"></a>

<h2 id="collations"><span>1.5. </span>Collations</h2>

<p>The COLLATE clause optionally following each column name
or expression defines a
collating sequence used for text entries in that column.
The default collating
sequence is the collating sequence defined for that column in the
<a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> statement.  Or if no collating sequence is otherwise defined,
the built-in BINARY collating sequence is used.</p>


Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtable.html.


































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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<div class=fancy>
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CREATE TABLE
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Table Of Contents
</a>
<div id="toc_sub"><div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#syntax">1. Syntax</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_create_table_command">2. The CREATE TABLE command</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#create_table_as_select_statements">2.1. CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT Statements</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#column_definitions">3. Column Definitions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#column_data_types">3.1. Column Data Types</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_default_clause">3.2. The DEFAULT clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_collate_clause">3.3. The COLLATE clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_generated_always_as_clause">3.4. The GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_primary_key">3.5. The PRIMARY KEY</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#unique_constraints">3.6. UNIQUE constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#check_constraints">3.7. CHECK constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#not_null_constraints">3.8. NOT NULL constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#constraint_enforcement">4. Constraint enforcement</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#response_to_constraint_violations">4.1. Response to constraint violations</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#rowids_and_the_integer_primary_key">5. ROWIDs and the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a></div>
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<h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1>

<p><b><a href="syntax/create-table-stmt.html">create-table-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-def.html">column-def:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-constraint.html">column-constraint:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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 <div id='x026c655e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x757584bb' onclick='hideorshow("x757584bb","x628bf177")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x628bf177' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</svg>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x4839b75d' onclick='hideorshow("x4839b75d","x87e4413d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x87e4413d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<text x="76" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WITH</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<path d="M82,41L150,41A15 15 0 0 0 165 26L165,26A15 15 0 0 0 150 11L82,11A15 15 0 0 0 66 26L66,26A15 15 0 0 0 82 41Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x4c4af5b4' onclick='hideorshow("x4c4af5b4","xb8a58e2d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xb8a58e2d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<text x="74" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">name</text>
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<path d="M180,70A15 15 0 0 0 195 55L195,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M600,55 L 608,55 Q 615,55 615,47 L 615,40"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M74,47 L 33,47 Q 18,47 18,32 L 18,32 Q 18,17 26,17 L 33,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M382,17L630,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='xc4224d74' onclick='hideorshow("xc4224d74","x8567ce26")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x8567ce26' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,44 39,48 39,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
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<path d="M81,44 L 88,44 Q 96,44 96,30 Q 96,17 106,17 L 116,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M137,32L244,32A15 15 0 0 0 259 17A15 15 0 0 0 244 2L137,2A15 15 0 0 0 122 17A15 15 0 0 0 137 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="191" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">numeric-literal</text>
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,67 Q 24,82 34,82 L 45,82"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text>
<path d="M81,82 L 88,82 Q 96,82 96,67 L 96,44 L 96,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M66,17L111,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='xe7480a56' onclick='hideorshow("xe7480a56","xec171eca")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xec171eca' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M380,47L397,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M564,47L581,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
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<path d="M193,17L478,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='xeabdf241' onclick='hideorshow("xeabdf241","x93826e0b")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x93826e0b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
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<path d="M90,17L107,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="137" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M422,17L462,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x71693918' onclick='hideorshow("x71693918","x5f6a9f20")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x5f6a9f20' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="259" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LEFT</text>
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<path d="M393,86L437,86A15 15 0 0 0 452 71A15 15 0 0 0 437 56L393,56A15 15 0 0 0 378 71A15 15 0 0 0 393 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="415" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OUTER</text>
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<path d="M532,56L554,56A15 15 0 0 0 569 41A15 15 0 0 0 554 26L532,26A15 15 0 0 0 516 41A15 15 0 0 0 532 56Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="543" y="41" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">JOIN</text>
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<text x="310" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xf0b595d4' onclick='hideorshow("xf0b595d4","x9335f4fe")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x9335f4fe' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="471" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ASC</text>
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='xc25ec9a4' onclick='hideorshow("xc25ec9a4","x054cd254")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x054cd254' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:398px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 398.054 163.08">
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<path d="M9,17L39,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="69" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M94,17 L 102,17 Q 109,17 109,32 L 109,40 Q 109,55 119,55 L 130,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M151,70L155,70A15 15 0 0 0 170 55L170,55A15 15 0 0 0 155 39L151,39A15 15 0 0 0 136 55L136,55A15 15 0 0 0 151 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M221,70L309,70A15 15 0 0 0 324 55L324,55A15 15 0 0 0 309 39L221,39A15 15 0 0 0 206 55L206,55A15 15 0 0 0 221 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="265" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-alias</text>
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<polygon points="388,17 377,21 377,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M347,55 L 354,55 Q 362,55 362,40 L 362,32 Q 362,17 372,17 L 382,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M153,85 L 170,85 Q 185,85 185,70 L 185,70 Q 185,55 192,55 L 200,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M66,123A15 15 0 0 0 81 108A15 15 0 0 0 66 92A15 15 0 0 0 50 108A15 15 0 0 0 66 123Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M81,108L341,108"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M347,108 L 354,108 Q 362,108 362,93 L 362,54 L 362,39"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="103" y="145" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-name</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x5d19c60c' onclick='hideorshow("x5d19c60c","x3972d93a")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x3972d93a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,36 L 16,36 Q 24,36 24,51 L 24,59 Q 24,74 34,74 L 45,74"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,89L162,89A15 15 0 0 0 177 74L177,74A15 15 0 0 0 162 59L66,59A15 15 0 0 0 50 74L50,74A15 15 0 0 0 66 89Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="114" y="74" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">schema-name</text>
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<text x="527" y="36" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-alias</text>
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<path d="M422,6 L 442,6 Q 457,6 457,21 L 457,21 Q 457,36 464,36 L 472,36"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/window-defn.html">window-defn:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<path d="M45,1066L173,1066L173,1036L45,1036Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M916,1051 L 924,1051 Q 931,1051 931,1036 L 931,32 Q 931,17 939,17 L 946,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x62b5e8ca' onclick='hideorshow("x62b5e8ca","x305b4e40")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x305b4e40' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:422px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 422.381 34.56">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L93,32A15 15 0 0 0 108 17A15 15 0 0 0 93 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FILTER</text>
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<path d="M108,17L125,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M146,32L146,32A15 15 0 0 0 161 17A15 15 0 0 0 146 2L146,2A15 15 0 0 0 131 17A15 15 0 0 0 146 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="146" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<text x="224" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WHERE</text>
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<path d="M264,17L281,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M287,32L336,32L336,2L287,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="312" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M336,17L353,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M374,32A15 15 0 0 0 389 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 2A15 15 0 0 0 359 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="374" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<circle cx="416" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
<button id='xc97e887a' onclick='hideorshow("xc97e887a","x2c6e9f06")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x2c6e9f06' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<circle cx="5" cy="56" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,56 20,60 20,52" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,56L26,56"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M32,56 L 38,56 Q 43,56 43,41 L 43,41 Q 43,26 52,26 L 61,26"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M82,41L150,41A15 15 0 0 0 165 26L165,26A15 15 0 0 0 150 11L82,11A15 15 0 0 0 66 26L66,26A15 15 0 0 0 82 41Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="116" y="26" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">DISTINCT</text>
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<text x="228" y="192" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">*</text>
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<path d="M278,192 L 360,192 Q 375,192 390,192 L 394,192 Q 409,192 409,177 L 409,71 Q 409,56 415,56 L 421,56"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M105,132L149,132A15 15 0 0 0 164 117L164,117A15 15 0 0 0 149 101L105,101A15 15 0 0 0 90 117L90,117A15 15 0 0 0 105 132Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M245,132L375,132L375,101L245,101Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="117" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ordering-term</text>
<path d="M310,169A15 15 0 0 0 325 154A15 15 0 0 0 310 139A15 15 0 0 0 294 154A15 15 0 0 0 310 169Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="154" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x5acf9229' onclick='hideorshow("x5acf9229","x97324439")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x97324439' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="56" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M126,59L190,59A15 15 0 0 0 205 44L205,44A15 15 0 0 0 190 29L126,29A15 15 0 0 0 111 44L111,44A15 15 0 0 0 126 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">COLLATE</text>
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<path d="M244,59L349,59A15 15 0 0 0 364 44L364,44A15 15 0 0 0 349 29L244,29A15 15 0 0 0 228 44L228,44A15 15 0 0 0 244 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="296" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">collation-name</text>
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<path d="M462,97L492,97A15 15 0 0 0 508 82A15 15 0 0 0 492 67L462,67A15 15 0 0 0 447 82A15 15 0 0 0 462 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='xed12d8b6' onclick='hideorshow("xed12d8b6","x34c4345f")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x34c4345f' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M65,334L252,334A15 15 0 0 0 267 319A15 15 0 0 0 252 304L65,304A15 15 0 0 0 50 319A15 15 0 0 0 65 334Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="159" y="319" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x9a78b28f' onclick='hideorshow("x9a78b28f","x71f1aaa4")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x71f1aaa4' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="56" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M126,59L190,59A15 15 0 0 0 205 44L205,44A15 15 0 0 0 190 29L126,29A15 15 0 0 0 111 44L111,44A15 15 0 0 0 126 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M244,59L349,59A15 15 0 0 0 364 44L364,44A15 15 0 0 0 349 29L244,29A15 15 0 0 0 228 44L228,44A15 15 0 0 0 244 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="296" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">collation-name</text>
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<path d="M364,44 L 372,44 Q 379,44 379,30 Q 379,17 389,17 L 400,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M243,17L394,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M462,97L492,97A15 15 0 0 0 508 82A15 15 0 0 0 492 67L462,67A15 15 0 0 0 447 82A15 15 0 0 0 462 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="477" y="82" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">DESC</text>
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<path d="M606,59L648,59A15 15 0 0 0 663 44L663,44A15 15 0 0 0 648 29L606,29A15 15 0 0 0 591 44L591,44A15 15 0 0 0 606 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="627" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NULLS</text>
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<path d="M663,82L680,82"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="714" y="82" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LAST</text>
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='xfcc97da7' onclick='hideorshow("xfcc97da7","x3290febe")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x3290febe' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:627px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 627.302 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L82,32A15 15 0 0 0 97 17A15 15 0 0 0 82 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="65" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RAISE</text>
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<path d="M97,17L114,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M135,32L135,32A15 15 0 0 0 150 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 2L135,2A15 15 0 0 0 120 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="135" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M207,70L285,70A15 15 0 0 0 300 55L300,55A15 15 0 0 0 285 39L207,39A15 15 0 0 0 192 55L192,55A15 15 0 0 0 207 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="246" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ROLLBACK</text>
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<path d="M300,55L330,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M351,70A15 15 0 0 0 366 55L366,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 39A15 15 0 0 0 336 55L336,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="351" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M366,55L383,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M404,70L508,70A15 15 0 0 0 523 55L523,55A15 15 0 0 0 508 39L404,39A15 15 0 0 0 389 55L389,55A15 15 0 0 0 404 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="456" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">error-message</text>
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<path d="M579,32A15 15 0 0 0 594 17A15 15 0 0 0 579 2A15 15 0 0 0 564 17A15 15 0 0 0 579 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M594,17L612,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="621" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M150,17L186,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,32L259,32A15 15 0 0 0 274 17A15 15 0 0 0 259 2L207,2A15 15 0 0 0 192 17A15 15 0 0 0 207 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="233" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">IGNORE</text>
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<path d="M456,17L553,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,108L249,108A15 15 0 0 0 264 92A15 15 0 0 0 249 77L207,77A15 15 0 0 0 192 92A15 15 0 0 0 207 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="228" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ABORT</text>
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<path d="M300,92 L 307,92 Q 315,92 315,77 L 315,70 Q 315,55 322,55 L 330,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,145L229,145A15 15 0 0 0 244 130A15 15 0 0 0 229 115L207,115A15 15 0 0 0 192 130A15 15 0 0 0 207 145Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='xff989053' onclick='hideorshow("xff989053","x6025604c")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6025604c' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:661px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 661.008 110.16">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L39,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M60,32L87,32A15 15 0 0 0 102 17A15 15 0 0 0 87 2L60,2A15 15 0 0 0 45 17A15 15 0 0 0 60 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="74" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">name</text>
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<path d="M180,108A15 15 0 0 0 195 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 77A15 15 0 0 0 165 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 108Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="180" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<text x="281" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">signed-number</text>
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<text x="585" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='xc4d8971f' onclick='hideorshow("xc4d8971f","x934d7f67")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x934d7f67' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M5,327 L 5,471 Q 5,486 20,486 L 612,486 L 627,486"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M5,372 L 5,380 Q 5,387 20,387 L 118,387 L 133,387"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column:</a></b>
<button id='x2bd038da' onclick='hideorshow("x2bd038da","x6d19ff8b")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x6d19ff8b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:696px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 696.36 102.6">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,17 39,21 39,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L45,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,32L160,32A15 15 0 0 0 175 17A15 15 0 0 0 160 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="113" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
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<path d="M261,62L325,62A15 15 0 0 0 341 47L341,47A15 15 0 0 0 325 32L261,32A15 15 0 0 0 246 47L246,47A15 15 0 0 0 261 62Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="293" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">COLLATE</text>
<polygon points="358,47 346,51 346,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M341,47L352,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M373,62L478,62A15 15 0 0 0 493 47L493,47A15 15 0 0 0 478 32L373,32A15 15 0 0 0 358 47L358,47A15 15 0 0 0 373 62Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<polygon points="567,85 556,89 556,81" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M511,47 L 518,47 Q 526,47 526,32 L 526,32 Q 526,17 533,17 Q 541,17 541,32 L 541,70 Q 541,85 551,85 L 561,85"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M582,100L613,100A15 15 0 0 0 628 85L628,85A15 15 0 0 0 613 70L582,70A15 15 0 0 0 567 85L567,85A15 15 0 0 0 582 100Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="597" y="85" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">DESC</text>
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<path d="M628,85L639,85"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="687,17 675,21 675,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M645,85 L 652,85 Q 660,85 660,70 L 660,32 Q 660,17 670,17 L 681,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="690" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M50,70L100,70L100,39L50,39Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="75" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
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<path d="M100,55L169,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M175,17L352,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="597,17 586,21 586,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M358,17L592,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M597,17L675,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M582,62L599,62A15 15 0 0 0 614 47A15 15 0 0 0 599 32L582,32A15 15 0 0 0 567 47A15 15 0 0 0 582 62Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="591" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ASC</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-options.html">table-options:</a></b>
<button id='xfc1ab7d8' onclick='hideorshow("xfc1ab7d8","xb4a663be")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xb4a663be' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,36 L 40,36 Q 55,36 55,26 Q 55,17 63,17 L 72,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M93,32L161,32A15 15 0 0 0 177 17A15 15 0 0 0 161 2L93,2A15 15 0 0 0 77 17A15 15 0 0 0 93 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="127" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WITHOUT</text>
<polygon points="194,17 182,21 182,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M177,17L188,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M209,32L253,32A15 15 0 0 0 268 17A15 15 0 0 0 253 2L209,2A15 15 0 0 0 194 17A15 15 0 0 0 209 32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="231" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ROWID</text>
<path d="M268,17 L 274,17 Q 280,17 280,26 Q 280,36 295,36 L 299,36 L 314,36"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="116" y="54" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">STRICT</text>
<polygon points="314,36 303,40 303,31" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M154,54 L 253,54 Q 268,54 274,54 Q 280,54 280,45 Q 280,36 294,36 L 308,36"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M77,81 L 31,81 Q 16,81 16,66 L 16,51 Q 16,36 28,36 L 39,36"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>


<h1 id="the_create_table_command"><span>2. </span>The CREATE TABLE command</h1>

<p>The "CREATE TABLE" command is used to create a new table in an SQLite 
database. A CREATE TABLE command specifies the following attributes of the
new table:

</p><ul>
  <li><p>The name of the new table.

  </p></li><li><p> The database in which the new table is created. Tables may be 
      created in the main database, the temp database, or in any attached
      database.

  </p></li><li><p> The name of each column in the table.

  </p></li><li><p> The declared type of each column in the table.

  </p></li><li><p> A default value or expression for each column in the table.

  </p></li><li><p> A default collation sequence to use with each column.

  </p></li><li><p> Optionally, a PRIMARY KEY for the table. Both single column and
       composite (multiple column) primary keys are supported.

  </p></li><li><p> A set of SQL constraints for each table. SQLite supports UNIQUE, NOT
       NULL, CHECK and FOREIGN KEY constraints.

  </p></li><li><p> Optionally, a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a> constraint.

  </p></li><li><p> Whether the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table.

  </p></li><li><p> Whether the table is subject to <a href="stricttables.html">strict type checking</a>.
</p></li></ul>

<p>Every CREATE TABLE statement must specify a name for the new table.
  Table names that begin with "sqlite_" are reserved for internal use. It
  is an error to attempt to create a table with a name that starts with
  "sqlite_".

</p><p> If a <span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> is specified, it must be either "main", 
  "temp", or the name of an <a href="lang_attach.html">attached database</a>. In this case
  the new table is created in the named database. If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY"
  keyword occurs between the "CREATE" and "TABLE" then the new table is
  created in the temp database. It is an error to specify both a 
  <span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> and the TEMP or TEMPORARY keyword, unless the
  <span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> is "temp". 
  If no schema name is specified and the
  TEMP keyword is not present then the table is created in the main
  database.

</p><p>
  It is usually an error to attempt to create a new table in a database that
  already contains a table, index or view of the same name. However, if the
  "IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified as part of the CREATE TABLE statement and
  a table or view of the same name already exists, the CREATE TABLE command
  simply has no effect (and no error message is returned). An error is still
  returned if the table cannot be created because of an existing index, even 
  if the "IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified.

</p><p>It is not an error to create a table that has the same name as an 
  existing <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">trigger</a>.

</p><p>Tables are removed using the <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> statement.  </p>

<a name="createtabas"></a>

<h2 id="create_table_as_select_statements"><span>2.1. </span>CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT Statements</h2>

<p>A "CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT" statement creates and populates a database
table based on the results of a SELECT statement. The table has the same
number of columns as the SELECT statement returns. The name of
each column is the same as the name of the corresponding column in the result
set of the SELECT statement. The declared type of each column is determined
by the <a href="datatype3.html#expraff">expression affinity</a> of the corresponding expression in the result set
of the SELECT statement, as follows:
</p>

<center><table border="1">
  <tr><th>Expression Affinity   </th><th>Column Declared Type
  </th></tr><tr><td>TEXT                  </td><td>"TEXT"
  </td></tr><tr><td>NUMERIC               </td><td>"NUM"
  </td></tr><tr><td>INTEGER               </td><td>"INT"
  </td></tr><tr><td>REAL                  </td><td>"REAL"
  </td></tr><tr><td>BLOB (a.k.a "NONE")   </td><td>"" (empty string)
</td></tr></table></center>

<p>A table created using CREATE TABLE AS has no PRIMARY KEY and no
constraints of any kind. The default value of each column is NULL. The default
collation sequence for each column of the new table is BINARY.

</p><p>Tables created using CREATE TABLE AS are initially populated with the
rows of data returned by the SELECT statement. Rows are assigned contiguously
ascending <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">rowid</a> values, starting with 1, in the <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">order</a> that they
are returned by the SELECT statement.

<a name="tablecoldef"></a>

</p><h1 id="column_definitions"><span>3. </span>Column Definitions</h1>

<p>Unless it is a CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT statement, a CREATE TABLE includes
one or more <a href="syntax/column-def.html">column definitions</a>, optionally followed by a list of
<a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table constraints</a>.  Each column definition consists of the
name of the column, optionally followed by the declared type of the column,
then one or more optional <a href="syntax/column-constraint.html">column constraints</a>. Included in
the definition of "column constraints" for the purposes of the previous
statement are the COLLATE and DEFAULT clauses, even though these are not really
constraints in the sense that they do not restrict the data that the table may
contain. The other constraints - NOT NULL, CHECK, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY and
FOREIGN KEY constraints - impose restrictions on the table data.

</p><p>The number of columns in a table is limited by the <a href="limits.html#max_column">SQLITE_MAX_COLUMN</a>
compile-time parameter. A single row of a table cannot store more than
<a href="limits.html#max_length">SQLITE_MAX_LENGTH</a> bytes of data. Both of these limits can be lowered at
runtime using the <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit()</a> C/C++ interface.</p>

<h2 id="column_data_types"><span>3.1. </span>Column Data Types</h2>

<p>Unlike most SQL databases, SQLite does not restrict the type of data that
may be inserted into a column based on the columns declared type. Instead,
SQLite uses <a href="datatype3.html">dynamic typing</a>. The declared type of a column is used to
determine the <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> of the column only.

<a name="dfltval"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_default_clause"><span>3.2. </span>The DEFAULT clause</h2>
<p>The DEFAULT clause specifies a default value to use for the column if no
value is explicitly provided by the user when doing an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>. If there
is no explicit DEFAULT clause attached to a column definition, then the 
default value of the column is NULL. An explicit DEFAULT clause may specify
that the default value is NULL, a string constant, a blob constant, a
signed-number, or any constant expression enclosed in parentheses. A
default value may also be one of the special case-independent keywords
CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP. For the purposes of the
DEFAULT clause, an expression is considered constant if it
contains no sub-queries, column or table references, <a href="lang_expr.html#varparam">bound parameters</a>,
or string literals enclosed in double-quotes instead of single-quotes.

</p><p>Each time a row is inserted into the table by an INSERT statement that 
does not provide explicit values for all table columns the values stored in
the new row are determined by their default values, as follows:

</p><ul>
  <li><p>If the default value of the column is a constant NULL, text, blob or
    signed-number value, then that value is used directly in the new row.

  </p></li><li><p>If the default value of a column is an expression in parentheses, then
    the expression is evaluated once for each row inserted and the results
    used in the new row.

  </p></li><li><p>If the default value of a column is CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or
    CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, then the value used in the new row is a text
    representation of the current UTC date and/or time. For CURRENT_TIME, the
    format of the value is "HH:MM:SS". For CURRENT_DATE, "YYYY-MM-DD". The
    format for CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is "YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS".
</p></li></ul>

<a name="collateclause"></a>

<h2 id="the_collate_clause"><span>3.3. </span>The COLLATE clause</h2>
<p>The COLLATE clause specifies the name of a <a href="datatype3.html#collation">collating sequence</a> to use as
the default collation sequence for the column. If no COLLATE clause is
specified, the default collation sequence is <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a>.

</p><h2 id="the_generated_always_as_clause"><span>3.4. </span>The GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause</h2>
<p>A column that includes a GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause is a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>.
Generated columns are supported beginning with SQLite version 3.31.0 (2020-01-22).
See the <a href="gencol.html">separate documentation</a> for details on the capabilities and
limitations of generated columns.

<a name="primkeyconst"></a>

</p><h2 id="the_primary_key"><span>3.5. </span>The PRIMARY KEY</h2>
<p>Each table in SQLite may have at most one PRIMARY KEY. If the
  keywords PRIMARY KEY are added to a column definition, then the primary key
  for the table consists of that single column. Or, if a PRIMARY KEY clause 
  is specified as a <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a>, then the primary key of the table
  consists of the list of columns specified as part of the PRIMARY KEY clause.
  The PRIMARY KEY clause must contain only column names &mdash; the use of 
  expressions in an <a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column</a> of a PRIMARY KEY is not supported.
  An error is raised if more than one PRIMARY KEY clause appears in a
  CREATE TABLE statement.  The PRIMARY KEY is optional for ordinary tables
  but is required for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.

</p><p>If a table has a single column primary key and the declared type of that
  column is "INTEGER" and the table is not a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table,
  then the column is known as an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.
  See <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">below</a> for a description of the special properties and behaviors
  associated with an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.

</p><p>Each row in a table with a primary key must have a unique combination
  of values in its primary key columns. For the purposes of determining
  the uniqueness of primary key values, NULL values are considered distinct from
  all other values, including other NULLs. If an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>
  statement attempts to modify the table content so that two or more rows
  have identical primary key values, that is a constraint violation.

</p><p> According to the SQL standard, PRIMARY KEY should always imply NOT NULL.
  Unfortunately, due to a bug in some early versions, this is not the
  case in SQLite. Unless the column is an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> or
  the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table or a <a href="stricttables.html">STRICT</a> table 
  or the column is declared NOT NULL,
  SQLite allows NULL values in a PRIMARY KEY column.  SQLite could be fixed to
  conform to the standard, but doing so might break legacy applications.
  Hence, it has been decided to merely document the fact that SQLite
  allows NULLs in most PRIMARY KEY columns.

<a name="uniqueconst"></a>

</p><h2 id="unique_constraints"><span>3.6. </span>UNIQUE constraints</h2>
<p>A UNIQUE constraint is similar to a PRIMARY KEY constraint, except
  that a single table may have any number of UNIQUE constraints. For each
  UNIQUE constraint on the table, each row must contain a unique combination
  of values in the columns identified by the UNIQUE constraint. 
  For the purposes of UNIQUE constraints, NULL values
  are considered distinct from all other values, including other NULLs.
  As with PRIMARY KEYs, a UNIQUE <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a> clause must contain
  only column names &mdash; the use of 
  expressions in an <a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column</a> of a UNIQUE <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a>
  is not supported.
  

</p><p>In most cases, UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY
  constraints are implemented by creating a unique index in the database.
  (The exceptions are <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> and PRIMARY KEYs on 
  <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.)
  Hence, the following schemas are logically equivalent:

  </p><ol>
  <li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b UNIQUE);
  </p></li><li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b PRIMARY KEY);
  </p></li><li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b);<br>
         CREATE UNIQUE INDEX t1b ON t1(b);
  </p></li></ol>

<a name="ckconst"></a>

<h2 id="check_constraints"><span>3.7. </span>CHECK constraints</h2>
<p>A CHECK constraint may be attached to a column definition or
  specified as a table constraint. In practice it makes no difference. Each
  time a new row is inserted into the table or an existing row is updated,
  the expression associated with each CHECK constraint is evaluated and
  cast to a NUMERIC value in the same way as a <a href="lang_expr.html#castexpr">CAST expression</a>. If the 
  result is zero (integer value 0 or real value 0.0), then a constraint
  violation has occurred. If the CHECK expression evaluates to NULL, or
  any other non-zero value, it is not a constraint violation.
  The expression of a CHECK constraint may not contain a subquery.

</p><p>CHECK constraints are only verified when the table is written, not when
   it is read.  Furthermore, verification of CHECK constraints can be
   temporarily disabled using the "<a href="pragma.html#pragma_ignore_check_constraints">PRAGMA ignore_check_constraints=ON;</a>"
   statement.  Hence, it is possible that a query might produce results that
   violate the CHECK constraints.

<a name="notnullconst"></a>

</p><h2 id="not_null_constraints"><span>3.8. </span>NOT NULL constraints</h2>
<p>A NOT NULL constraint may only be attached to a column definition,
  not specified as a table constraint.  Not surprisingly, a NOT NULL
  constraint dictates that the associated column may not contain a NULL value.
  Attempting to set the column value to NULL when inserting a new row or
  updating an existing one causes a constraint violation.  NOT NULL
  constraints are not verified during queries, so a query of a column might
  produce a NULL value even though the column is marked as NOT NULL, if the
  database file is corrupt.


</p><h1 id="constraint_enforcement"><span>4. </span>Constraint enforcement</h1>

<p>Constraints are checked during <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> and <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and by
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_integrity_check">PRAGMA integrity_check</a> and <a href="pragma.html#pragma_quick_check">PRAGMA quick_check</a> and sometimes
by <a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a>.  Queries and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>
statements do not normally verify constraints.
Hence, if a database file has been corrupted (perhaps by an external
program making direct changes to the database file without going through 
the SQLite library) a query might return data that violates a constraint.
For example:

</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>CREATE TABLE t1(x INT CHECK( x>3 ));
/* Insert a row with X less than 3 by directly writing into the
** database file using an external program */
PRAGMA integrity_check;  -- Reports row with x less than 3 as corrupt
INSERT INTO t1(x) VALUES(2);  -- Fails with SQLITE_CORRUPT
SELECT x FROM t1;  -- Returns an integer less than 3 in spite of the CHECK constraint
</pre></div>

<p>Enforcement of CHECK constraints can be temporarily disabled using
the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_ignore_check_constraints">PRAGMA ignore_check_constraints=ON;</a> statement.

</p><h2 id="response_to_constraint_violations"><span>4.1. </span>Response to constraint violations</h2>

<p>The response to a constraint violation is determined by the
  <a href="lang_conflict.html">constraint conflict resolution algorithm</a>. Each 
  PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK constraint has a default conflict
  resolution algorithm. PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints may be
  explicitly assigned another default conflict resolution algorithm by
  including a <a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause</a> in their definitions.
  Or, if a constraint definition does not include a <a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause</a>,
  the default conflict resolution algorithm is ABORT.
  The conflict resolution algorithm for CHECK constraints is always ABORT.
  (For historical compatibility only, table CHECK constraints are allowed
  to have a conflict resolution clause, but that has no effect.)
  Different constraints within the
  same table may have different default conflict resolution algorithms. See
  the section titled <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.

<a name="rowid"></a>

</p><h1 id="rowids_and_the_integer_primary_key"><span>5. </span>ROWIDs and the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</h1>

<p>Except for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables, all rows within SQLite tables
have a 64-bit signed integer key that uniquely identifies the row within its table.
This integer is usually
called the "rowid". The rowid value can be accessed using one of the special
case-independent names "rowid", "oid", or "_rowid_" in place of a column name.
If a table contains a user defined column named "rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_",
then that name always refers the explicitly declared column and cannot be used
to retrieve the integer rowid value.

</p><p>The rowid (and "oid" and "_rowid_") is omitted in <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.
WITHOUT ROWID tables are only available in SQLite <a href="releaselog/3_8_2.html">version 3.8.2</a>
(2013-12-06) and later.
A table that lacks the WITHOUT ROWID clause is called a "rowid table".

</p><p>The data for rowid tables is stored as a B-Tree structure containing
one entry for each table row, using the rowid value as the key. This means that
retrieving or sorting records by rowid is fast. Searching for a record with a
specific rowid, or for all records with rowids within a specified range is
around twice as fast as a similar search made by specifying any other PRIMARY
KEY or indexed value.

</p><p> With one exception noted below, if a rowid table has a primary key that consists
of a single column and the declared type of that column is "INTEGER" in any mixture of
upper and lower case, then the column becomes an alias for the rowid. Such a
column is usually referred to as an "integer primary key". A PRIMARY KEY column
only becomes an integer primary key if the declared type name is exactly
"INTEGER".  Other integer type names like "INT" or "BIGINT" or "SHORT INTEGER"
or "UNSIGNED INTEGER" causes the primary key column to behave as an ordinary
table column with integer <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> and a unique index, not as an alias for
the rowid.

</p><p> The exception mentioned above is that if the declaration of a column with
declared type "INTEGER" includes an "PRIMARY KEY DESC" clause, it does not
become an alias for the rowid and is not classified as an integer primary key.
This quirk is not by design. It is due to a bug in early versions of SQLite.
But fixing the bug could result in backwards incompatibilities.
Hence, the original behavior has been retained (and documented) because odd
behavior in a corner case is far better than a compatibility break.  This means
that the following three table declarations all cause the column "x" to be an
alias for the rowid (an integer primary key):

</p><ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ASC, y, z);</tt>
</li><li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x ASC));</tt>
</li><li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x DESC));</tt>
</li></ul>

<p>But the following declaration does not result in "x" being an alias for
the rowid:
</p><ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY DESC, y, z);</tt>
</li></ul>

<p>Rowid values may be modified using an UPDATE statement in the same
way as any other column value can, either using one of the built-in aliases
("rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_") or by using an alias created by an integer
primary key. Similarly, an INSERT statement may provide a value to use as the
rowid for each row inserted. Unlike normal SQLite columns, an integer primary
key or rowid column must contain integer values. Integer primary key or rowid
columns are not able to hold floating point values, strings, BLOBs, or NULLs.

</p><p>If an UPDATE statement attempts to set an integer primary key or rowid column
to a NULL or blob value, or to a string or real value that cannot be losslessly
converted to an integer, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the statement
is aborted. If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a blob value, or a string
or real value that cannot be losslessly converted to an integer into an
integer primary key or rowid column, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the
statement is aborted.

</p><p>If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a NULL value into a rowid or
integer primary key column, the system chooses an integer value to use as the
rowid automatically. A detailed description of how this is done is provided
<a href="autoinc.html">separately</a>.</p>

<p>The <a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">parent key</a> of a <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> is not allowed to
use the rowid.  The parent key must used named columns only.</p>
<p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on  <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink"  data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_createtable.in?m=8cff538651">2024-03-13 17:43:35</a> UTC </small></i></p>

Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtrigger.html.







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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CREATE TRIGGER
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Table Of Contents
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<div id="toc_sub"><div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#syntax">1. Syntax</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#description">2. Description</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#syntax_restrictions_on_update_delete_and_insert_statements_within_triggers">2.1. Syntax Restrictions On UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT Statements Within
Triggers</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#instead_of_triggers">3. INSTEAD OF triggers</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#some_example_triggers">4. Some Example Triggers</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#cautions_on_the_use_of_before_triggers">5. Cautions On The Use Of BEFORE triggers</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_raise_function">6. The RAISE() function</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#temp_triggers_on_non_temp_tables">7. TEMP Triggers on Non-TEMP Tables</a></div>
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<h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1>

<p><b><a href="syntax/create-trigger-stmt.html">create-trigger-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/delete-stmt.html">delete-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/qualified-table-name.html">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x160ac4cf' onclick='hideorshow("x160ac4cf","xbbb41514")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/returning-clause.html">returning-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x77c9d945' onclick='hideorshow("x77c9d945","x4d928f2e")'>show</button></p>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x557283b2' onclick='hideorshow("x557283b2","xecfd6785")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xecfd6785' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1fe78f9a' onclick='hideorshow("x1fe78f9a","xa1eb3529")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xa1eb3529' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<path d="M670,17L780,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
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<text x="135" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<text x="233" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">IGNORE</text>
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<text x="228" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ABORT</text>
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<path d="M300,92 L 307,92 Q 315,92 315,77 L 315,70 Q 315,55 322,55 L 330,55"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,145L229,145A15 15 0 0 0 244 130A15 15 0 0 0 229 115L207,115A15 15 0 0 0 192 130A15 15 0 0 0 207 145Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<text x="74" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">name</text>
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<path d="M180,70A15 15 0 0 0 195 55L195,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M74,47 L 33,47 Q 18,47 18,32 L 18,32 Q 18,17 26,17 L 33,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/insert-stmt.html">insert-stmt:</a></b>
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<text x="75" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WITH</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/returning-clause.html">returning-clause:</a></b>
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 <div id='xa7e9d13c' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/upsert-clause.html">upsert-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-name-list.html">column-name-list:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
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<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x612fe06b' onclick='hideorshow("x612fe06b","xa18db209")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xa18db209' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x16f046d7' onclick='hideorshow("x16f046d7","x69cda082")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x69cda082' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
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<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xfd9e665b' onclick='hideorshow("xfd9e665b","xec6a7759")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xec6a7759' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x09f6168a' onclick='hideorshow("x09f6168a","x0bf0b990")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x2740da05' onclick='hideorshow("x2740da05","x91f88d19")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/window-defn.html">window-defn:</a></b>
<button id='xff26d74e' onclick='hideorshow("xff26d74e","xd364d5ac")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xd364d5ac' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
<button id='x212c491e' onclick='hideorshow("x212c491e","x57b5c8f6")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/update-stmt.html">update-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-name-list.html">column-name-list:</a></b>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='xd2882eba' onclick='hideorshow("xd2882eba","x55cc6de8")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x55cc6de8' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:638px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 638.525 167.4">
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<path d="M9,29L26,29"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,44L122,44A15 15 0 0 0 137 29A15 15 0 0 0 122 14L47,14A15 15 0 0 0 32 29A15 15 0 0 0 47 44Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="85" y="29" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-name</text>
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<text x="348" y="29" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
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<text x="49" y="150" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">AS</text>
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<text x="137" y="119" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NOT</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x612889dc' onclick='hideorshow("x612889dc","xe3599c62")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xe3599c62' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24">
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<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M380,47L397,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
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<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
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<path d="M721,47 L 742,47 Q 757,47 757,32 L 757,32 Q 757,17 767,17 L 778,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="787" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,17L776,17"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x724d36c9' onclick='hideorshow("x724d36c9","x88b01523")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x88b01523' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x7418cb6f' onclick='hideorshow("x7418cb6f","xa33fee55")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xa33fee55' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
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<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/qualified-table-name.html">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x96153f7f' onclick='hideorshow("x96153f7f","xce01d406")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xce01d406' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<text x="425" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">AS</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/returning-clause.html">returning-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x14ada6c5' onclick='hideorshow("x14ada6c5","xd02b7129")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='xd02b7129' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
 <div style="max-width:628px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 628.709 140.4">
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<path d="M42,62L132,62A15 15 0 0 0 147 47A15 15 0 0 0 132 32L42,32A15 15 0 0 0 27 47A15 15 0 0 0 42 62Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="87" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RETURNING</text>
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<path d="M237,62L287,62L287,32L237,32Z"  style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="457" y="77" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-alias</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='xaae61d7a' onclick='hideorshow("xaae61d7a","x5dba123d")'>show</button></p>
 <div id='x5dba123d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<h1 id="description"><span>2. </span>Description</h1>
<p>The CREATE TRIGGER statement is used to add triggers to the 
database schema. Triggers are database operations 
that are automatically performed when a specified database event
occurs.  </p>

<p>Each trigger must specify that it will fire for one of
the following operations: <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>.
The trigger fires once for each row that is deleted, inserted,
or updated.  If the "UPDATE OF <span class='yyterm'>column-name</span>"
syntax is used, then the trigger will only fire if
<span class='yyterm'>column-name</span> appears on the left-hand side of
one of the terms in the SET clause of the <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statement.</p>

<p>Due to an historical oversight, columns named in the "UPDATE OF"
clause do not actually have to exist in the table being updated.
Unrecognized column names are silently ignored.
It would be more helpful if SQLite would fail the CREATE TRIGGER
statement if any of the names in the "UPDATE OF" clause are not
columns in the table.  However, as this problem was discovered
many years after SQLite was widely deployed, we have resisted
fixing the problem for fear of breaking legacy applications.</p>

<p>At this time SQLite supports only FOR EACH ROW triggers, not FOR EACH
STATEMENT triggers. Hence explicitly specifying FOR EACH ROW is optional.
FOR EACH ROW implies that the SQL statements specified in the trigger
may be executed (depending on the WHEN clause) for each database row being
inserted, updated or deleted by the statement causing the trigger to fire.</p>

<p>Both the WHEN clause and the trigger actions may access elements of 
the row being inserted, deleted or updated using references of the form 
"NEW.<i>column-name</i>" and "OLD.<i>column-name</i>", where
<i>column-name</i> is the name of a column from the table that the trigger
is associated with. OLD and NEW references may only be used in triggers on
events for which they are relevant, as follows:</p>

<table border="0" cellpadding="10">
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><i>INSERT</i></td>
<td valign="top">NEW references are valid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><i>UPDATE</i></td>
<td valign="top">NEW and OLD references are valid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><i>DELETE</i></td>
<td valign="top">OLD references are valid</td>
</tr>
</table>


<p>If a WHEN clause is supplied, the SQL statements specified
are only executed if the WHEN clause is true.
If no WHEN clause is supplied, the SQL statements
are executed every time the trigger fires.</p>

<p>The BEFORE or AFTER keyword determines when the trigger actions
will be executed relative to the insertion, modification or removal of the
associated row.  BEFORE is the default when neither keyword is present.</p>

<p>An <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> clause may be specified as part of an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> or <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
action within the body of the trigger.
However if an <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> clause is specified as part of 
the statement causing the trigger to fire, then conflict handling
policy of the outer statement is used instead.</p>

<p>Triggers are automatically <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">dropped</a>
when the table that they are 
associated with (the <i>table-name</i> table) is 
<a href="lang_droptable.html">dropped</a>.  However if the trigger actions reference
other tables, the trigger is not dropped or modified if those other
tables are <a href="lang_droptable.html">dropped</a> or <a href="lang_altertable.html">modified</a>.</p>

<p>Triggers are removed using the <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a> statement.</p>

<h2 id="syntax_restrictions_on_update_delete_and_insert_statements_within_triggers"><span>2.1. </span>Syntax Restrictions On UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT Statements Within
    Triggers</h2>

<p>The <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, and <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
statements within triggers do not support
the full syntax for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, and <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> statements.  The following
restrictions apply:</p>

<ul>
<li><p>
  The name of the table to be modified in an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, or <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
  statement must be an unqualified table name.  In other words, one must
  use just "<i>tablename</i>" not "<i>database</i><b>.</b><i>tablename</i>"
  when specifying the table. </p></li>

<li><p>
 For non-TEMP triggers,
  the table to be modified or queried must exist in the
  same database as the table or view to which the trigger is attached.
  TEMP triggers are not subject to the same-database rule.  A TEMP
  trigger is allowed to query or modify any table in any <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a>-ed database.
  </p></li>

<li><p>
  The "INSERT INTO <i>table</i> DEFAULT VALUES" form of the <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> statement
  is not supported.
  </p></li>

<li><p>
  The INDEXED BY and NOT INDEXED clauses are not supported for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and
  <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements.
  </p></li>

<li><p>
  The ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses on <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements are not
  supported.  ORDER BY and LIMIT are not normally supported for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> or
  <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> in any context but can be enabled for top-level statements
  using the <a href="compile.html#enable_update_delete_limit">SQLITE_ENABLE_UPDATE_DELETE_LIMIT</a> compile-time option.  However,
  that compile-time option only applies to top-level <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>
  statements, not <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements within triggers.
  </p></li>

<li><p>
  <a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">Common table expression</a> are not supported for
  statements inside of triggers.
  </p></li>
</ul>

<a name="instead_of_trigger"></a>

<h1 id="instead_of_triggers"><span>3. </span>INSTEAD OF triggers</h1>

<p>BEFORE and AFTER triggers work only on ordinary tables.
INSTEAD OF triggers work only on views.

</p><p>If an INSTEAD OF INSERT trigger exists on a view, then it is
possible to execute an INSERT statement against that view.  No actual
insert occurs.  Instead, the statements contained within the trigger
are run.  INSTEAD OF DELETE and
INSTEAD OF UPDATE triggers work the same way for DELETE and UPDATE statements
against views.</p>

<p>Note that the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a> and <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a> interfaces
do not count INSTEAD OF trigger firings, but the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_count_changes">count_changes pragma</a> does count INSTEAD OF trigger firing.</p>

<h1 id="some_example_triggers"><span>4. </span>Some Example Triggers</h1>

<p>Assuming that customer records are stored in the "customers" table, and
that order records are stored in the "orders" table, the following
UPDATE trigger
ensures that all associated orders are redirected when a customer changes
his or her address:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TRIGGER update_customer_address UPDATE OF address ON customers 
  BEGIN
    UPDATE orders SET address = new.address WHERE customer_name = old.name;
  END;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>With this trigger installed, executing the statement:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
UPDATE customers SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE name = 'Jack Jones';
</pre></blockquote>

<p>causes the following to be automatically executed:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
UPDATE orders SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE customer_name = 'Jack Jones';
</pre></blockquote>

<p>For an example of an INSTEAD OF trigger, consider the following schema:

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE customer(
  cust_id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
  cust_name TEXT,
  cust_addr TEXT
);
CREATE VIEW customer_address AS
   SELECT cust_id, cust_addr FROM customer;
CREATE TRIGGER cust_addr_chng
INSTEAD OF UPDATE OF cust_addr ON customer_address
BEGIN
  UPDATE customer SET cust_addr=NEW.cust_addr
   WHERE cust_id=NEW.cust_id;
END;
</pre></blockquote>

</p><p>With the schema above, a statement of the form:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
UPDATE customer_address SET cust_addr=$new_address WHERE cust_id=$cust_id;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Causes the customer.cust_addr field to be updated for a specific
customer entry that has customer.cust_id equal to the $cust_id parameter.
Note how the values assigned to the view are made available as field
in the special "NEW" table within the trigger body.</p>

<a name="undef_before"></a>

<h1 id="cautions_on_the_use_of_before_triggers"><span>5. </span>Cautions On The Use Of BEFORE triggers</h1>

<p>If a BEFORE UPDATE or BEFORE DELETE trigger modifies or deletes a row
that was to have been updated or deleted, then the result of the subsequent
update or delete operation is undefined.  Furthermore, if a BEFORE trigger
modifies or deletes a row, then it is undefined whether or not AFTER triggers
that would have otherwise run on those rows will in fact run.
</p>

<p>The value of NEW.rowid is undefined in a BEFORE INSERT trigger in which
the rowid is not explicitly set to an integer.</p>

<p>Because of the behaviors described above, programmers are encouraged to
prefer AFTER triggers over BEFORE triggers.</p>

<a name="raise"></a>

<h1 id="the_raise_function"><span>6. </span>The RAISE() function</h1>

<p>A special SQL function RAISE() may be used within a trigger-program,
with the following syntax</p> 
<