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Changes In Branch trunk Excluding Merge-Ins
This is equivalent to a diff from 555d0d530d to 61617d740c
2025-01-27
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18:08 | Add the ability to build in VS2022 using the Setup/build_vs_2022.bat script to the 1.0.119.0 release. Leaf check-in: 0b34025625 user: drh tags: branch-119 | |
2025-01-24
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15:23 | Include the steps for Mono as well. Leaf check-in: 61617d740c user: mistachkin tags: trunk | |
15:17 | Improve build documentation so it includes the explicit steps for building on POSIX compliant operating systems. check-in: 8b5928fbf5 user: mistachkin tags: trunk | |
2010-11-24
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14:29 | Remove a duplicate DLL whose name differs only in case. check-in: 7f9e634bf5 user: drh tags: trunk | |
2010-08-15
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22:10 | Fix guid type Closed-Leaf check-in: 555d0d530d user: rmsimpson tags: sourceforge | |
2010-08-11
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16:17 | Updates for take and skip check-in: fc483e780a user: rmsimpson tags: sourceforge | |
Added .fossil-settings/binary-glob.
> > > > > > > > > > > > > > | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 | *.bmp *.chm *.db *.dll *.exe *.gif *.gz *.lib *.msi *.pdb *.png *.resources *.snk *.zip |
Added .fossil-settings/crnl-glob.
> | 1 | * |
Added .fossil-settings/encoding-glob.
> | 1 | Tests/data/testlinq.out |
Added .fossil-settings/ignore-glob.
> > > > > > > > > > > | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 | Externals/Eagle/bin/net5/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/net6/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netCore20/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netCore30/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/x64/Spilornis.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework20/x86/Spilornis.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/Eagle*.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/x64/Spilornis.pdb Externals/Eagle/bin/netFramework40/x86/Spilornis.pdb Targets/SQLite.NET.Settings.targets.netFx40.user |
Added Doc/Extra/Core/images/sqlite370_banner.gif.
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Added Doc/Extra/Core/json1.html.
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Overview</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#compiling_in_json_support">2. Compiling in JSON Support</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#interface_overview">3. Interface Overview</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#json_arguments">3.1. JSON arguments</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#jsonb">3.2. JSONB</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#the_jsonb_format">3.2.1. The JSONB format</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#handling_of_malformed_jsonb">3.2.2. Handling of malformed JSONB</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#path_arguments">3.3. PATH arguments</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#value_arguments">3.4. VALUE arguments</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#compatibility">3.5. Compatibility</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#json5_extensions">3.6. JSON5 Extensions</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#performance_considerations">3.7. Performance Considerations</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_blob_input_bug">3.8. The JSON BLOB Input Bug</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#function_details">4. Function Details</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_function">4.1. The json() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_function">4.2. The jsonb() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_array_function">4.3. The json_array() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_array_function">4.4. The jsonb_array() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_array_length_function">4.5. The json_array_length() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_error_position_function">4.6. The json_error_position() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_extract_function">4.7. The json_extract() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_extract_function">4.8. The jsonb_extract() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_and_operators">4.9. The -> and ->> operators</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_insert_json_replace_and_json_set_functions">4.10. The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_insert_jsonb_replace_and_jsonb_set_functions">4.11. The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace, and jsonb_set() functions</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_object_function">4.12. The json_object() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_object_function">4.13. The jsonb_object() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_patch_function">4.14. The json_patch() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_patch_function">4.15. The jsonb_patch() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_pretty_function">4.16. The json_pretty() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_remove_function">4.17. The json_remove() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_jsonb_remove_function">4.18. The jsonb_remove() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_type_function">4.19. The json_type() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_valid_function">4.20. The json_valid() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_quote_function">4.21. The json_quote() function</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#array_and_object_aggregate_functions">4.22. Array and object aggregate functions</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_json_each_and_json_tree_table_valued_functions">4.23. The json_each() and json_tree() table-valued functions</a></div> <div class="fancy-toc3"><a href="#examples_using_json_each_and_json_tree_">4.23.1. Examples using json_each() and json_tree()</a></div> </div> </div> <script> function toggle_toc(){ var sub = document.getElementById("toc_sub") var mk = document.getElementById("toc_mk") if( sub.style.display!="block" ){ sub.style.display = "block"; mk.innerHTML = "▼"; } else { sub.style.display = "none"; mk.innerHTML = "►"; } } </script> </div> <h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1> <p> By default, SQLite supports thirty functions and two operators for dealing with JSON values. There are also two <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a> that can be used to decompose a JSON string. </p><p> There are twenty-six scalar functions and operators: </p><ol> <li value='1'> <a href='#jmini'>json</a>(<i>json</i>) </li> <li value='2'> <a href='#jminib'>jsonb</a>(<i>json</i>) </li> <li value='3'> <a href='#jarray'>json_array</a>(<i>value1</i>,<i>value2</i>,...) </li> <li value='4'> <a href='#jarrayb'>jsonb_array</a>(<i>value1</i>,<i>value2</i>,...) </li> <li value='5'> <a href='#jarraylen'>json_array_length</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jarraylen'>json_array_length</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>) </li> <li value='6'> <a href='#jerr'>json_error_position</a>(<i>json</i>) </li> <li value='7'> <a href='#jex'>json_extract</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...) </li> <li value='8'> <a href='#jexb'>jsonb_extract</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...) </li> <li value='9'> <i>json</i> <a href='#jptr'>-></a> <i>path</i> </li> <li value='10'> <i>json</i> <a href='#jptr'>->></a> <i>path</i> </li> <li value='11'> <a href='#jins'>json_insert</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='12'> <a href='#jinsb'>jsonb_insert</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='13'> <a href='#jobj'>json_object</a>(<i>label1</i>,<i>value1</i>,...) </li> <li value='14'> <a href='#jobjb'>jsonb_object</a>(<i>label1</i>,<i>value1</i>,...) </li> <li value='15'> <a href='#jpatch'>json_patch</a>(<i>json</i>1,json2) </li> <li value='16'> <a href='#jpatchb'>jsonb_patch</a>(<i>json</i>1,json2) </li> <li value='17'> <a href='#jpretty'>json_pretty</a>(<i>json</i>) </li> <li value='18'> <a href='#jrm'>json_remove</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...) </li> <li value='19'> <a href='#jrmb'>jsonb_remove</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,...) </li> <li value='20'> <a href='#jrepl'>json_replace</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='21'> <a href='#jreplb'>jsonb_replace</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='22'> <a href='#jset'>json_set</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='23'> <a href='#jsetb'>jsonb_set</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>,<i>value</i>,...) </li> <li value='24'> <a href='#jtype'>json_type</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jtype'>json_type</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>) </li> <li value='25'> <a href='#jvalid'>json_valid</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jvalid'>json_valid</a>(<i>json</i>,flags) </li> <li value='26'> <a href='#jquote'>json_quote</a>(<i>value</i>) </li> </ol> <p>There are four <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate SQL functions</a>: </p><ol> <li value='27'> <a href='#jgrouparray'>json_group_array</a>(<i>value</i>) </li> <li value='28'> <a href='#jgrouparrayb'>jsonb_group_array</a>(<i>value</i>) </li> <li value='29'> <a href='#jgroupobject'>json_group_object</a>(<i>label</i>,<i>value</i>) </li> <li value='30'> <a href='#jgroupobjectb'>jsonb_group_object</a>(name,<i>value</i>) </li> </ol> <p>The two <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a> are: </p><ol> <li value='31'> <a href='#jeach'>json_each</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jeach'>json_each</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>) </li> <li value='32'> <a href='#jtree'>json_tree</a>(<i>json</i>)<br><a href='#jtree'>json_tree</a>(<i>json</i>,<i>path</i>) </li> </ol> <style> .jans {color: #050;} .jex {color: #025;} </style> <a name="howtocompile"></a> <h1 id="compiling_in_json_support"><span>2. </span>Compiling in JSON Support</h1> <p> The JSON functions and operators are built into SQLite by default, as of SQLite version 3.38.0 (2022-02-22). They can be omitted by adding the -DSQLITE_OMIT_JSON compile-time option. Prior to version 3.38.0, the JSON functions were an extension that would only be included in builds if the -DSQLITE_ENABLE_JSON1 compile-time option was included. In other words, the JSON functions went from being opt-in with SQLite version 3.37.2 and earlier to opt-out with SQLite version 3.38.0 and later. </p><h1 id="interface_overview"><span>3. </span>Interface Overview</h1> <p> SQLite stores JSON as ordinary text. Backwards compatibility constraints mean that SQLite is only able to store values that are NULL, integers, floating-point numbers, text, and BLOBs. It is not possible to add a new "JSON" type. </p><h2 id="json_arguments"><span>3.1. </span>JSON arguments</h2> <p> For functions that accept JSON as their first argument, that argument can be a JSON object, array, number, string, or null. SQLite numeric values and NULL values are interpreted as JSON numbers and nulls, respectively. SQLite text values can be understood as JSON objects, arrays, or strings. If an SQLite text value that is not a well-formed JSON object, array, or string is passed into JSON function, that function will usually throw an error. (Exceptions to this rule are <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid()</a>, <a href="json1.html#jquote">json_quote()</a>, and <a href="json1.html#jerr">json_error_position()</a>.) </p><p> These routines understand all <a href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8259.txt">rfc-8259 JSON syntax</a> and also <a href="https://spec.json5.org/">JSON5 extensions</a>. JSON text generated by these routines always strictly conforms to the <a href="https://json.org">canonical JSON definition</a> and does not contain any JSON5 or other extensions. The ability to read and understand JSON5 was added in version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16). Prior versions of SQLite would only read canonical JSON. <a name="jsonbx"></a> </p><h2 id="jsonb"><span>3.2. </span>JSONB</h2> <p> Beginning with version 3.45.0 (2024-01-15), SQLite allows its internal "parse tree" representation of JSON to be stored on disk, as a BLOB, in a format that we call "JSONB". By storing SQLite's internal binary representation of JSON directly in the database, applications can bypass the overhead of parsing and rendering JSON when reading and updating JSON values. The internal JSONB format also uses slightly less disk space then text JSON. </p><p> Any SQL function parameter that accepts text JSON as an input will also accept a BLOB in the JSONB format. The function will operate the same in either case, except that it will run faster when the input is JSONB, since it does not need to run the JSON parser. </p><p> Most SQL functions that return JSON text have a corresponding function that returns the equivalent JSONB. The functions that return JSON in the text format begin with "<tt>json_</tt>" and functions that return the binary JSONB format begin with "<tt>jsonb_</tt>". </p><h3 id="the_jsonb_format"><span>3.2.1. </span>The JSONB format</h3> <p> JSONB is a binary representation of JSON used by SQLite and is intended for internal use by SQLite only. Applications should not use JSONB outside of SQLite nor try to reverse-engineer the JSONB format. </p><p> The "JSONB" name is inspired by <a href="https://postgresql.org">PostgreSQL</a>, but the on-disk format for SQLite's JSONB is not the same as PostgreSQL's. The two formats have the same name, but are not binary compatible. The PostgreSQL JSONB format claims to offer O(1) lookup of elements in objects and arrays. SQLite's JSONB format makes no such claim. SQLite's JSONB has O(N) time complexity for most operations in SQLite, just like text JSON. The advantage of JSONB in SQLite is that it is smaller and faster than text JSON - potentially several times faster. There is space in the on-disk JSONB format to add enhancements and future versions of SQLite might include options to provide O(1) lookup of elements in JSONB, but no such capability is currently available. </p><h3 id="handling_of_malformed_jsonb"><span>3.2.2. </span>Handling of malformed JSONB</h3> <p> The JSONB that is generated by SQLite will always be well-formed. If you follow recommended practice and treat JSONB as an opaque BLOB, then you will not have any problems. But JSONB is just a BLOB, so a mischievous programmer could devise BLOBs that are similar to JSONB but that are technically malformed. When misformatted JSONB is feed into JSON functions, any of the following might happen: </p><ul> <li><p> The SQL statement might abort with a "malformed JSON" error. </p></li><li><p> The correct answer might be returned, if the malformed parts of the JSONB blob do not impact the answer. </p></li><li><p> A goofy or nonsensical answer might be returned. </p></li></ul> <p> The way in which SQLite handles invalid JSONB might change from one version of SQLite to the next. The system follows the garbage-in/garbage-out rule: If you feed the JSON functions invalid JSONB, you get back an invalid answer. If you are in doubt about the validity of our JSONB, use the <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid()</a> function to verify it. </p><p> We do make this one promise: Malformed JSONB will never cause a memory error or similar problem that might lead to a vulnerability. Invalid JSONB might lead to crazy answers, or it might cause queries to abort, but it won't cause a crash. <a name="jsonpath"></a> </p><h2 id="path_arguments"><span>3.3. </span>PATH arguments</h2> <p> For functions that accept PATH arguments, that PATH must be well-formed or else the function will throw an error. A well-formed PATH is a text value that begins with exactly one '$' character followed by zero or more instances of ".<i>objectlabel</i>" or "[<i>arrayindex</i>]". </p><p> The <i>arrayindex</i> is usually a non-negative integer <i>N</i>. In that case, the array element selected is the <i>N</i>-th element of the array, starting with zero on the left. The <i>arrayindex</i> can also be of the form "<b>#-</b><i>N</i>" in which case the element selected is the <i>N</i>-th from the right. The last element of the array is "<b>#-1</b>". Think of the "#" characters as the "number of elements in the array". Then the expression "#-1" evaluates to the integer that corresponds to the last entry in the array. It is sometimes useful for the array index to be just the <b>#</b> character, for example when appending a value to an existing JSON array: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('[0,1,2]','$[#]','new')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[0,1,2,"new"]'</span></li> </ul> <a name="varg"></a> </p><h2 id="value_arguments"><span>3.4. </span>VALUE arguments</h2> <p> For functions that accept "<i>value</i>" arguments (also shown as "<i>value1</i>" and "<i>value2</i>"), those arguments are usually understood to be literal strings that are quoted and become JSON string values in the result. Even if the input <i>value</i> strings look like well-formed JSON, they are still interpreted as literal strings in the result. </p><p> However, if a <i>value</i> argument comes directly from the result of another JSON function or from <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a> (but not <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a>), then the argument is understood to be actual JSON and the complete JSON is inserted rather than a quoted string. </p><p> For example, in the following call to json_object(), the <i>value</i> argument looks like a well-formed JSON array. However, because it is just ordinary SQL text, it is interpreted as a literal string and added to the result as a quoted string: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex','[52,3.14159]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"ex":"[52,3.14159]"}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',('[52,3.14159]'->>'$'))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"ex":"[52,3.14159]"}'</span></li> </ul> </p><p> But if the <i>value</i> argument in the outer json_object() call is the result of another JSON function like <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a>, then the value is understood to be actual JSON and is inserted as such: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',json('[52,3.14159]'))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex',json_array(52,3.14159))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('ex','[52,3.14159]'->'$')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"ex":[52,3.14159]}'</span></li> </ul> </p><p> To be clear: "<i>json</i>" arguments are always interpreted as JSON regardless of where the value for that argument comes from. But "<i>value</i>" arguments are only interpreted as JSON if those arguments come directly from another JSON function or <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a>. </p><p> Within JSON value arguments interpreted as JSON strings, Unicode escape sequences are not treated as equivalent to the characters or escaped control characters represented by the expressed Unicode code point. Such escape sequences are not translated or specially treated; they are treated as plain text by SQLite's JSON functions. </p><h2 id="compatibility"><span>3.5. </span>Compatibility</h2> <p> The current implementation of this JSON library uses a recursive descent parser. In order to avoid using excess stack space, any JSON input that has more than 1000 levels of nesting is considered invalid. Limits on nesting depth are allowed for compatible implementations of JSON by <a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc8259#section-9">RFC-8259 section 9</a>. <a name="json5"></a> </p><h2 id="json5_extensions"><span>3.6. </span>JSON5 Extensions</h2> <p> Beginning in version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16), these routines will read and interpret input JSON text that includes <a href="https://spec.json5.org/">JSON5</a> extensions. However, JSON text generated by these routines will always be strictly conforming to the <a href="https://json.org">canonical definition of JSON</a>. </p><p> Here is a synopsis of JSON5 extensions (adapted from the <a href="https://spec.json5.org/#introduction">JSON5 specification</a>): </p><ul> <li> Object keys may be unquoted identifiers. </li><li> Objects may have a single trailing comma. </li><li> Arrays may have a single trailing comma. </li><li> Strings may be single quoted. </li><li> Strings may span multiple lines by escaping new line characters. </li><li> Strings may include new character escapes. </li><li> Numbers may be hexadecimal. </li><li> Numbers may have a leading or trailing decimal point. </li><li> Numbers may be "Infinity", "-Infinity", and "NaN". </li><li> Numbers may begin with an explicit plus sign. </li><li> Single (//...) and multi-line (/*...*/) comments are allowed. </li><li> Additional white space characters are allowed. </li></ul> <p> To convert string X from JSON5 into canonical JSON, invoke "<a href="json1.html#jmini">json(X)</a>". The output of the "<a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a>" function will be canonical JSON regardless of any JSON5 extensions that are present in the input. For backwards compatibility, the <a href="json1.html#jvalid">json_valid(X)</a> function without a "flags" argument continues to report false for inputs that are not canonical JSON, even if the input is JSON5 that the function is able to understand. To determine whether or not an input string is valid JSON5, include the 0x02 bit in the "flags" argument to json_valid: "<tt>json_valid(X,2)</tt>". </p><p> These routines understand all of JSON5, plus a little more. SQLite extends the JSON5 syntax in these two ways: </p><ol> <li><p> Strict JSON5 requires that unquoted object keys must be ECMAScript 5.1 IdentifierNames. But large unicode tables and lots of code is required in order to determine whether or not a key is an ECMAScript 5.1 IdentifierName. For this reason, SQLite allows object keys to include any unicode characters greater than U+007f that are not whitespace characters. This relaxed definition of "identifier" greatly simplifies the implementation and allows the JSON parser to be smaller and run faster. </p></li><li><p> JSON5 allows floating-point infinities to be expressed as "<tt>Infinity</tt>", "<tt>-Infinity</tt>", or "<tt>+Infinity</tt>" in exactly that case - the initial "I" is capitalized and all other characters are lower case. SQLite also allows the abbreviation "<tt>Inf</tt>" to be used in place of "<tt>Infinity</tt>" and it allows both keywords to appear in any combination of upper and lower case letters. Similarly, JSON5 allows "NaN" for not-a-number. SQLite extends this to also allow "QNaN" and "SNaN" in any combination of upper and lower case letters. Note that SQLite interprets NaN, QNaN, and SNaN as just an alternative spellings for "null". This extension has been added because (we are told) there exists a lot of JSON in the wild that includes these non-standard representations for infinity and not-a-number. </p></li></ol> <h2 id="performance_considerations"><span>3.7. </span>Performance Considerations</h2> <p> Most JSON functions do their internal processing using JSONB. So if the input is text, they first most translate the input text into JSONB. If the input is already in the JSONB format, no translation is needed, that step can be skipped, and performance is faster. </p><p> For that reason, when an argument to one JSON function is supplied by another JSON function, it is usually more efficient to use the "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" variant for the function used as the argument. </p><ul> <li> <tt>... json_insert(A,'$.b',json(C)) ...</tt> ← Less efficient. </li><li> <tt>... json_insert(A,'$.b',jsonb(C)) ...</tt> ← More efficient. </li></ul> <p> The <a href="json1.html#jgroupobjectb">aggregate JSON SQL functions</a> are an exception to this rule. Those functions all do their processing using text instead of JSONB. So for the aggregate JSON SQL functions, it is more efficient for the arguments to be supplied using "<tt>json_</tt>" functions than "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" functions. </p><ul> <li> <tt>... json_group_array(json(A))) ...</tt> ← More efficient. </li><li> <tt>... json_group_array(jsonb(A))) ...</tt> ← Less efficient. </li></ul> <a name="jblobbug"></a> <h2 id="the_json_blob_input_bug"><span>3.8. </span>The JSON BLOB Input Bug</h2> <p>If a JSON input is a BLOB that is not JSONB and that looks like text JSON when cast to text, then it is accepted as text JSON. This is actually a long-standing bug in the original implementation that the SQLite developers were unaware of. The documentation stated that a BLOB input to a JSON function should raise an error. But in the actual implementation, the input would be accepted as long as the BLOB content was a valid JSON string in the text encoding of the database. </p><p>This JSON BLOB input bug was accidentally fixed when the JSON routines were reimplemented for the 3.45.0 release (2024-01-15). That caused breakage in applications that had come to depend on the old behavior. (In defense of those applications: they were often lured into using BLOBs as JSON by the <a href="cli.html#fileio">readfile()</a> SQL function available in the <a href="cli.html">CLI</a>. Readfile() was used to read JSON from disk files, but readfile() returns a BLOB. And that worked for them, so why not just do it?) </p><p>For backwards compatibility, the (formerly incorrect) legacy behavior of interpreting BLOBs as text JSON if no other interpretation works is hereby documented and is be officially supported in version 3.45.1 (2024-01-30) and all subsequent releases. </p><h1 id="function_details"><span>4. </span>Function Details</h1> <p>The following sections provide additional detail on the operation of the various JSON functions and operators: <a name="jmini"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_function"><span>4.1. </span>The json() function</h2> <p>The json(X) function verifies that its argument X is a valid JSON string or JSONB blob and returns a minified version of that JSON string with all unnecessary whitespace removed. If X is not a well-formed JSON string or JSONB blob, then this routine throws an error. </p><p>If the input is JSON5 text, then it is converted into canonical RFC-8259 text prior to being returned. </p><p>If the argument X to json(X) contains JSON objects with duplicate labels, then it is undefined whether or not the duplicates are preserved. The current implementation preserves duplicates. However, future enhancements to this routine may choose to silently remove duplicates. </p><p> Example: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json(' { "this" : "is", "a": [ "test" ] } ')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"this":"is","a":["test"]}'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jminib"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_function"><span>4.2. </span>The jsonb() function</h2> <p>The jsonb(X) function returns the binary JSONB representation of the JSON provided as argument X. An error is raised if X is TEXT that does not have valid JSON syntax. </p><p>If X is a BLOB and appears to be JSONB, then this routine simply returns a copy of X. Only the outer-most element of the JSONB input is examined, however. The deep structure of the JSONB is not validated. <a name="jarray"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_array_function"><span>4.3. </span>The json_array() function</h2> <p>The json_array() SQL function accepts zero or more arguments and returns a well-formed JSON array that is composed from those arguments. If any argument to json_array() is a BLOB then an error is thrown. </p><p>An argument with SQL type TEXT is normally converted into a quoted JSON string. However, if the argument is the output from another json1 function, then it is stored as JSON. This allows calls to json_array() and <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a> to be nested. The <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> function can also be used to force strings to be recognized as JSON. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,2,'3',4)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,2,"3",4]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array('[1,2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '["[1,2]"]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array(json_array(1,2))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[[1,2]]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,null,'3','[4,5]','{"six":7.7}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,null,"3","[4,5]","{\"six\":7.7}"]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array(1,null,'3',json('[4,5]'),json('{"six":7.7}'))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,null,"3",[4,5],{"six":7.7}]'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jarrayb"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_array_function"><span>4.4. </span>The jsonb_array() function</h2> <p>The jsonb_array() SQL function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a> function except that it returns the constructed JSON array in the SQLite's private JSONB format rather than in the standard RFC 8259 text format. <a name="jarraylen"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_array_length_function"><span>4.5. </span>The json_array_length() function</h2> <p>The json_array_length(X) function returns the number of elements in the JSON array X, or 0 if X is some kind of JSON value other than an array. The json_array_length(X,P) locates the array at path P within X and returns the length of that array, or 0 if path P locates an element in X that is not a JSON array, and NULL if path P does not locate any element of X. Errors are thrown if either X is not well-formed JSON or if P is not a well-formed path. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 4</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]', '$')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 4</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('[1,2,3,4]', '$[2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 0</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 0</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}', '$.one')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 3</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_array_length('{"one":[1,2,3]}', '$.two')</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> <a name="jerr"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_error_position_function"><span>4.6. </span>The json_error_position() function</h2> <p>The json_error_position(X) function returns 0 if the input X is a well-formed JSON or JSON5 string. If the input X contains one or more syntax errors, then this function returns the character position of the first syntax error. The left-most character is position 1. </p><p>If the input X is a BLOB, then this routine returns 0 if X is a well-formed JSONB blob. If the return value is positive, then it represents the <i>approximate</i> 1-based position in the BLOB of the first detected error. </p><p> The json_error_position() function was added with SQLite version 3.42.0 (2023-05-16). <a name="jex"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_extract_function"><span>4.7. </span>The json_extract() function</h2> <p>The json_extract(X,P1,P2,...) extracts and returns one or more values from the well-formed JSON at X. If only a single path P1 is provided, then the SQL datatype of the result is NULL for a JSON null, INTEGER or REAL for a JSON numeric value, an INTEGER zero for a JSON false value, an INTEGER one for a JSON true value, the dequoted text for a JSON string value, and a text representation for JSON object and array values. If there are multiple path arguments (P1, P2, and so forth) then this routine returns SQLite text which is a well-formed JSON array holding the various values. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c[2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"f":7}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.c[2].f')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 7</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}','$.c','$.a')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[[4,5],2]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}','$.c[#-1]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 5</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.x')</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}', '$.x', '$.a')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[null,2]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":"xyz"}', '$.a')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'xyz'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_extract('{"a":null}', '$.a')</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> </p><p>There is a subtle incompatibility between the json_extract() function in SQLite and the json_extract() function in MySQL. The MySQL version of json_extract() always returns JSON. The SQLite version of json_extract() only returns JSON if there are two or more PATH arguments (because the result is then a JSON array) or if the single PATH argument references an array or object. In SQLite, if json_extract() has only a single PATH argument and that PATH references a JSON null or a string or a numeric value, then json_extract() returns the corresponding SQL NULL, TEXT, INTEGER, or REAL value. </p><p>The difference between MySQL json_extract() and SQLite json_extract() really only stands out when accessing individual values within the JSON that are strings or NULLs. The following table demonstrates the difference: </p><center> <table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> <tr><th>Operation</th><th>SQLite Result</th><th>MySQL Result </th></tr><tr><td>json_extract('{"a":null,"b":"xyz"}','$.a')</td><td>NULL</td><td>'null' </td></tr><tr><td>json_extract('{"a":null,"b":"xyz"}','$.b')</td><td>'xyz'</td><td>'"xyz"' </td></tr></table></center> <a name="jexb"></a> <h2 id="the_jsonb_extract_function"><span>4.8. </span>The jsonb_extract() function</h2> <p> The jsonb_extract() function works the same as the <a href="json1.html#jex">json_extract()</a> function, except in cases where json_extract() would normally return a text JSON array object, this routine returns the array or object in the JSONB format. For the common case where a text, numeric, null, or boolean JSON element is returned, this routine works exactly the same as json_extract(). <a name="jptr"></a> </p><h2 id="the_and_operators"><span>4.9. </span>The -> and ->> operators</h2> <p>Beginning with SQLite version 3.38.0 (2022-02-22), the -> and ->> operators are available for extracting subcomponents of JSON. The SQLite implementation of -> and ->> strives to be compatible with both MySQL and PostgreSQL. The -> and ->> operators take a JSON string or JSONB blob as their left operand and a PATH expression or object field label or array index as their right operand. The -> operator returns a text JSON representation of the selected subcomponent or NULL if that subcomponent does not exist. The ->> operator returns an SQL TEXT, INTEGER, REAL, or NULL value that represents the selected subcomponent, or NULL if the subcomponent does not exist. </p><p>Both the -> and ->> operators select the same subcomponent of the JSON to their left. The difference is that -> always returns a JSON representation of that subcomponent and the ->> operator always returns an SQL representation of that subcomponent. Thus, these operators are subtly different from a two-argument <a href="json1.html#jex">json_extract()</a> function call. A call to json_extract() with two arguments will return a JSON representation of the subcomponent if and only if the subcomponent is a JSON array or object, and will return an SQL representation of the subcomponent if the subcomponent is a JSON null, string, or numeric value. </p><p>When the -> operator returns JSON, it always returns the RFC 8565 text representation of that JSON, not JSONB. Use the <a href="json1.html#jexb">jsonb_extract()</a> function if you need a subcomponent in the JSONB format. </p><p>The right-hand operand to the -> and ->> operators can be a well-formed JSON path expression. This is the form used by MySQL. For compatibility with PostgreSQL, the -> and ->> operators also accept a text object label or integer array index as their right-hand operand. If the right operand is a text label X, then it is interpreted as the JSON path '$.X'. If the right operand is an integer value N, then it is interpreted as the JSON path '$[N]'. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> 'c'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[4,5,{"f":7}]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c[2]'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"f":7}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.c[2].f'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '7'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' ->> '$.c[2].f'</span> <span class='jans'>→ 7</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> 'c' -> 2 ->> 'f'</span> <span class='jans'>→ 7</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5],"f":7}' -> '$.c[#-1]'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '5'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":2,"c":[4,5,{"f":7}]}' -> '$.x'</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'[11,22,33,44]' -> 3</span> <span class='jans'>→ '44'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'[11,22,33,44]' ->> 3</span> <span class='jans'>→ 44</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":"xyz"}' -> '$.a'</span> <span class='jans'>→ '"xyz"'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":"xyz"}' ->> '$.a'</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'xyz'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":null}' -> '$.a'</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'null'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>'{"a":null}' ->> '$.a'</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> <a name="jins"></a> <a name="jrepl"></a> <a name="jset"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_insert_json_replace_and_json_set_functions"><span>4.10. </span>The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions</h2> <p>The json_insert(), json_replace, and json_set() functions all take a single JSON value as their first argument followed by zero or more pairs of path and value arguments, and return a new JSON string formed by updating the input JSON by the path/value pairs. The functions differ only in how they deal with creating new values and overwriting preexisting values. </p><center> <table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> <tr> <th>Function</th><th>Overwrite if already exists?</th><th>Create if does not exist? </th></tr><tr> <td>json_insert()</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">Yes </td></tr><tr> <td>json_replace()</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">No </td></tr><tr> <td>json_set()</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">Yes </td></tr></table></center> <p>The json_insert(), json_replace(), and json_set() functions always take an odd number of arguments. The first argument is always the original JSON to be edited. Subsequent arguments occur in pairs with the first element of each pair being a path and the second element being the value to insert or replace or set on that path. </p><p>Edits occur sequentially from left to right. Changes caused by prior edits can affect the path search for subsequent edits. </p><p>If the value of a path/value pair is an SQLite TEXT value, then it is normally inserted as a quoted JSON string, even if the string looks like valid JSON. However, if the value is the result of another json function (such as <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a> or <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a>) or if it is the result of <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a>, then it is interpreted as JSON and is inserted as JSON retaining all of its substructure. Values that are the result of <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a> are always interpreted as TEXT and are inserted as a JSON string even if they look like valid JSON. </p><p>These routines throw an error if the first JSON argument is not well-formed or if any PATH argument is not well-formed or if any argument is a BLOB. </p><p>To append an element onto the end of an array, using json_insert() with an array index of "#". Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_insert('[1,2,3,4]','$[#]',99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,2,3,4,99]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_insert('[1,[2,3],4]','$[1][#]',99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,[2,3,99],4]'</span></li> </ul> </p><p>Other examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_insert('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_insert('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":4,"e":99}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_replace('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":99,"c":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_replace('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.a', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":99,"c":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.e', 99)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":4,"e":99}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', '[97,96]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":"[97,96]"}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', json('[97,96]'))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":[97,96]}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_set('{"a":2,"c":4}', '$.c', json_array(97,96))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":[97,96]}'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jinsb"></a> <a name="jreplb"></a> <a name="jsetb"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_insert_jsonb_replace_and_jsonb_set_functions"><span>4.11. </span>The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace, and jsonb_set() functions</h2> <p>The jsonb_insert(), jsonb_replace(), and jsonb_set() functions work the same as <a href="json1.html#jins">json_insert()</a>, <a href="json1.html#jrepl">json_replace()</a>, and <a href="json1.html#jset">json_set()</a>, respectively, except that "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" versions return their result in the binary JSONB format. <a name="jobj"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_object_function"><span>4.12. </span>The json_object() function</h2> <p>The json_object() SQL function accepts zero or more pairs of arguments and returns a well-formed JSON object that is composed from those arguments. The first argument of each pair is the label and the second argument of each pair is the value. If any argument to json_object() is a BLOB then an error is thrown. </p><p>The json_object() function currently allows duplicate labels without complaint, though this might change in a future enhancement. </p><p>An argument with SQL type TEXT it is normally converted into a quoted JSON string even if the input text is well-formed JSON. However, if the argument is the direct result from another JSON function or <a href="json1.html#jptr">the -> operator</a> (but not <a href="json1.html#jptr">the ->> operator</a>), then it is treated as JSON and all of its JSON type information and substructure is preserved. This allows calls to json_object() and <a href="json1.html#jarray">json_array()</a> to be nested. The <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> function can also be used to force strings to be recognized as JSON. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c',4)</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c','{e:5}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":"{e:5}"}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_object('a',2,'c',json_object('e',5))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":2,"c":{"e":5}}'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jobjb"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_object_function"><span>4.13. </span>The jsonb_object() function</h2> <p> The jsonb_object() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jobj">json_object()</a> function except that the generated object is returned in the binary JSONB format. <a name="jpatch"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_patch_function"><span>4.14. </span>The json_patch() function</h2> <p>The json_patch(T,P) SQL function runs the <a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7396">RFC-7396</a> MergePatch algorithm to apply patch P against input T. The patched copy of T is returned. </p><p>MergePatch can add, modify, or delete elements of a JSON Object, and so for JSON Objects, the json_patch() routine is a generalized replacement for <a href="json1.html#jset">json_set()</a> and <a href="json1.html#jrm">json_remove()</a>. However, MergePatch treats JSON Array objects as atomic. MergePatch cannot append to an Array nor modify individual elements of an Array. It can only insert, replace, or delete the whole Array as a single unit. Hence, json_patch() is not as useful when dealing with JSON that includes Arrays, especially Arrays with lots of substructure. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":1,"b":2}','{"c":3,"d":4}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":1,"b":2,"c":3,"d":4}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":[1,2],"b":2}','{"a":9}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":9,"b":2}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":[1,2],"b":2}','{"a":null}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"b":2}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":1,"b":2}','{"a":9,"b":null,"c":8}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":9,"c":8}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_patch('{"a":{"x":1,"y":2},"b":3}','{"a":{"y":9},"c":8}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"a":{"x":1,"y":9},"b":3,"c":8}'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jpatchb"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_patch_function"><span>4.15. </span>The jsonb_patch() function</h2> <p> The jsonb_patch() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jpatch">json_patch()</a> function except that the patched JSON is returned in the binary JSONB format. <a name="jpretty"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_pretty_function"><span>4.16. </span>The json_pretty() function</h2> <p> The json_pretty() function works like <a href="json1.html#jmini">json()</a> except that it adds extra whitespace to make the JSON result easier for humans to read. The first argument is the JSON or JSONB that is to be pretty-printed. The optional second argument is a text string that is used for indentation. If the second argument is omitted or is NULL, then indentation is four spaces per level. </p><p> The json_pretty() function was added with SQLite version 3.46.0 (2024-05-23). <a name="jrm"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_remove_function"><span>4.17. </span>The json_remove() function</h2> <p>The json_remove(X,P,...) function takes a single JSON value as its first argument followed by zero or more path arguments. The json_remove(X,P,...) function returns a copy of the X parameter with all the elements identified by path arguments removed. Paths that select elements not found in X are silently ignored. </p><p>Removals occurs sequentially from left to right. Changes caused by prior removals can affect the path search for subsequent arguments. </p><p>If the json_remove(X) function is called with no path arguments, then it returns the input X reformatted, with excess whitespace removed. </p><p>The json_remove() function throws an error if the first argument is not well-formed JSON or if any later argument is not a well-formed path. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[0,1,3,4]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[2]','$[0]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,3,4]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[0]','$[2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,2,4]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('[0,1,2,3,4]','$[#-1]','$[0]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1,2,3]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"x":25,"y":42}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$.z')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"x":25,"y":42}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$.y')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '{"x":25}'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_remove('{"x":25,"y":42}','$')</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> <a name="jrmb"></a> </p><h2 id="the_jsonb_remove_function"><span>4.18. </span>The jsonb_remove() function</h2> <p> The jsonb_remove() function works just like the <a href="json1.html#jrm">json_remove()</a> function except that the edited JSON result is returned in the binary JSONB format. <a name="jtype"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_type_function"><span>4.19. </span>The json_type() function</h2> <p>The json_type(X) function returns the "type" of the outermost element of X. The json_type(X,P) function returns the "type" of the element in X that is selected by path P. The "type" returned by json_type() is one of the following SQL text values: 'null', 'true', 'false', 'integer', 'real', 'text', 'array', or 'object'. If the path P in json_type(X,P) selects an element that does not exist in X, then this function returns NULL. </p><p>The json_type() function throws an error if its first argument is not well-formed JSON or JSONB or if its second argument is not a well-formed JSON path. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'object'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'object'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'array'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[0]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'integer'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[1]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'real'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[2]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'true'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[3]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'false'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[4]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'null'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[5]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 'text'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_type('{"a":[2,3.5,true,false,null,"x"]}','$.a[6]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> <a name="jvalid"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_valid_function"><span>4.20. </span>The json_valid() function</h2> <p>The json_valid(X,Y) function return 1 if the argument X is well-formed JSON, or returns 0 if X is not well-formed. The Y parameter is an integer bitmask that defines what is meant by "well-formed". The following bits of Y are currently defined: </p><ul> <li> <b>0x01</b> → The input is text that strictly complies with canonical RFC-8259 JSON, without any extensions. </li><li> <b>0x02</b> → The input is text that is JSON with <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> extensions described above. </li><li> <b>0x04</b> → The input is a BLOB that superficially appears to be <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>. </li><li> <b>0x08</b> → The input is a BLOB that strictly conforms to the internal <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> format. </li></ul> <p>By combining bits, the following useful values of Y can be derived: </p><ul> <li> <b>1</b> → X is RFC-8259 JSON text </li><li> <b>2</b> → X is <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> text </li><li> <b>4</b> → X is probably <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> </li><li> <b>5</b> → X is RFC-8259 JSON text or <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> </li><li> <b>6</b> → X is <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> text or <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> ← <i>This is probably the value you want</i> </li><li> <b>8</b> → X is strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> </li><li> <b>9</b> → X is RFC-8259 or strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> </li><li> <b>10</b> → X is JSON5 or strictly conforming <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> </li></ul> <p>The Y parameter is optional. If omitted, it defaults to 1, which means that the default behavior is to return true only if the input X is strictly conforming RFC-8259 JSON text without any extensions. This makes the one-argument version of json_valid() compatible with older versions of SQLite, prior to the addition of support for <a href="json1.html#json5">JSON5</a> and <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>. </p><p>The difference between 0x04 and 0x08 bits in the Y parameter is that 0x04 only examines the outer wrapper of the BLOB to see if it superficially looks like <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a>. This is sufficient for must purposes and is very fast. The 0x08 bit does a thorough examination of all internal details of the BLOB. The 0x08 bit takes time that is linear in the size of the X input and is much slower. The 0x04 bit is recommended for most purposes. </p><p>If you just want to know if a value is a plausible input to one of the other JSON functions, a Y value of 6 is probably what you want to use. </p><p>Any Y value less than 1 or greater than 15 raises an error, for the latest version of json_valid(). However, future versions of json_valid() might be enhanced to accept flag values outside of this range, having new meanings that we have not yet thought of. </p><p>If either X or Y inputs to json_valid() are NULL, then the function returns NULL. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{"x":35}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 1</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{x:35}')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 0</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{x:35}',6)</span> <span class='jans'>→ 1</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_valid('{"x":35')</span> <span class='jans'>→ 0</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_valid(NULL)</span> <span class='jans'>→ NULL</span></li> </ul> <a name="jquote"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_quote_function"><span>4.21. </span>The json_quote() function</h2> <p>The json_quote(X) function converts the SQL value X (a number or a string) into its corresponding JSON representation. If X is a JSON value returned by another JSON function, then this function is a no-op. </p><p>Examples: <ul> <li><span class='jex'>json_quote(3.14159)</span> <span class='jans'>→ 3.14159</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_quote('verdant')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '"verdant"'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_quote('[1]')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '"[1]"'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_quote(json('[1]'))</span> <span class='jans'>→ '[1]'</span></li> <li><span class='jex'>json_quote('[1,')</span> <span class='jans'>→ '"[1,"'</span></li> </ul> <a name="jgrouparray"></a> <a name="jgroupobject"></a> <a name="jgrouparrayb"></a> <a name="jgroupobjectb"></a> </p><h2 id="array_and_object_aggregate_functions"><span>4.22. </span>Array and object aggregate functions</h2> <p>The json_group_array(X) function is an <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate SQL function</a> that returns a JSON array comprised of all X values in the aggregation. Similarly, the json_group_object(NAME,VALUE) function returns a JSON object comprised of all NAME/VALUE pairs in the aggregation. The "<tt>jsonb_</tt>" variants are the same except that they return their result in the binary <a href="json1.html#jsonbx">JSONB</a> format. <a name="jeach"></a> <a name="jtree"></a> </p><h2 id="the_json_each_and_json_tree_table_valued_functions"><span>4.23. </span>The json_each() and json_tree() table-valued functions</h2> <p>The json_each(X) and json_tree(X) <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued functions</a> walk the JSON value provided as their first argument and return one row for each element. The json_each(X) function only walks the immediate children of the top-level array or object, or just the top-level element itself if the top-level element is a primitive value. The json_tree(X) function recursively walks through the JSON substructure starting with the top-level element. </p><p>The json_each(X,P) and json_tree(X,P) functions work just like their one-argument counterparts except that they treat the element identified by path P as the top-level element. </p><p>The schema for the table returned by json_each() and json_tree() is as follows: </p><blockquote><pre> CREATE TABLE json_tree( key ANY, -- key for current element relative to its parent value ANY, -- value for the current element type TEXT, -- 'object','array','string','integer', etc. atom ANY, -- value for primitive types, null for array & object id INTEGER, -- integer ID for this element parent INTEGER, -- integer ID for the parent of this element fullkey TEXT, -- full path describing the current element path TEXT, -- path to the container of the current row json JSON HIDDEN, -- 1st input parameter: the raw JSON root TEXT HIDDEN -- 2nd input parameter: the PATH at which to start ); </pre></blockquote> <p> The "key" column is the integer array index for elements of a JSON array and the text label for elements of a JSON object. The key column is NULL in all other cases. </p><p> The "atom" column is the SQL value corresponding to primitive elements - elements other than JSON arrays and objects. The "atom" column is NULL for a JSON array or object. The "value" column is the same as the "atom" column for primitive JSON elements but takes on the text JSON value for arrays and objects. </p><p> The "type" column is an SQL text value taken from ('null', 'true', 'false', 'integer', 'real', 'text', 'array', 'object') according to the type of the current JSON element. </p><p> The "id" column is an integer that identifies a specific JSON element within the complete JSON string. The "id" integer is an internal housekeeping number, the computation of which might change in future releases. The only guarantee is that the "id" column will be different for every row. </p><p> The "parent" column is always NULL for json_each(). For json_tree(), the "parent" column is the "id" integer for the parent of the current element, or NULL for the top-level JSON element or the element identified by the root path in the second argument. </p><p> The "fullkey" column is a text path that uniquely identifies the current row element within the original JSON string. The complete key to the true top-level element is returned even if an alternative starting point is provided by the "root" argument. </p><p> The "path" column is the path to the array or object container that holds the current row, or the path to the current row in the case where the iteration starts on a primitive type and thus only provides a single row of output. </p><h3 id="examples_using_json_each_and_json_tree_"><span>4.23.1. </span>Examples using json_each() and json_tree()</h3> <p>Suppose the table "CREATE TABLE user(name,phone)" stores zero or more phone numbers as a JSON array object in the user.phone field. To find all users who have any phone number with a 704 area code: </p><blockquote><pre> SELECT DISTINCT user.name FROM user, json_each(user.phone) WHERE json_each.value LIKE '704-%'; </pre></blockquote> <p>Now suppose the user.phone field contains plain text if the user has only a single phone number and a JSON array if the user has multiple phone numbers. The same question is posed: "Which users have a phone number in the 704 area code?" But now the json_each() function can only be called for those users that have two or more phone numbers since json_each() requires well-formed JSON as its first argument: </p><blockquote><pre> SELECT name FROM user WHERE phone LIKE '704-%' UNION SELECT user.name FROM user, json_each(user.phone) WHERE json_valid(user.phone) AND json_each.value LIKE '704-%'; </pre></blockquote> <p>Consider a different database with "CREATE TABLE big(json JSON)". To see a complete line-by-line decomposition of the data: </p><blockquote><pre> SELECT big.rowid, fullkey, value FROM big, json_tree(big.json) WHERE json_tree.type NOT IN ('object','array'); </pre></blockquote> <p>In the previous, the "type NOT IN ('object','array')" term of the WHERE clause suppresses containers and only lets through leaf elements. The same effect could be achieved this way: </p><blockquote><pre> SELECT big.rowid, fullkey, atom FROM big, json_tree(big.json) WHERE atom IS NOT NULL; </pre></blockquote> <p>Suppose each entry in the BIG table is a JSON object with a '$.id' field that is a unique identifier and a '$.partlist' field that can be a deeply nested object. You want to find the id of every entry that contains one or more references to uuid '6fa5181e-5721-11e5-a04e-57f3d7b32808' anywhere in its '$.partlist'. </p><blockquote><pre> SELECT DISTINCT json_extract(big.json,'$.id') FROM big, json_tree(big.json, '$.partlist') WHERE json_tree.key='uuid' AND json_tree.value='6fa5181e-5721-11e5-a04e-57f3d7b32808'; </pre></blockquote> <p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink" data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/json1.in?m=d0ca839304">2024-07-25 15:06:57</a> UTC </small></i></p> |
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang.html.
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Reliable.<br>Choose any three. </div> <div class="menu mainmenu"> <ul> <li><a href="index.html">Home</a> <li class='mobileonly'><a href="javascript:void(0)" onclick='toggle_div("submenu")'>Menu</a> <li class='wideonly'><a href='about.html'>About</a> <li class='desktoponly'><a href="docs.html">Documentation</a> <li class='desktoponly'><a href="download.html">Download</a> <li class='wideonly'><a href='copyright.html'>License</a> <li class='desktoponly'><a href="support.html">Support</a> <li class='desktoponly'><a href="prosupport.html">Purchase</a> <li class='search' id='search_menubutton'> <a href="javascript:void(0)" onclick='toggle_search()'>Search</a> </ul> </div> <div class="menu submenu" id="submenu"> <ul> <li><a href='about.html'>About</a> <li><a href='docs.html'>Documentation</a> <li><a href='download.html'>Download</a> <li><a href='support.html'>Support</a> <li><a href='prosupport.html'>Purchase</a> </ul> </div> <div class="searchmenu" id="searchmenu"> <form method="GET" action="search"> <select name="s" id="searchtype"> <option value="d">Search Documentation</option> <option value="c">Search Changelog</option> </select> <input type="text" name="q" id="searchbox" value=""> <input type="submit" value="Go"> </form> </div> </div> <script> function toggle_div(nm) { var w = document.getElementById(nm); if( w.style.display=="block" ){ w.style.display = "none"; }else{ w.style.display = "block"; } } function toggle_search() { var w = document.getElementById("searchmenu"); if( w.style.display=="block" ){ w.style.display = "none"; } else { w.style.display = "block"; setTimeout(function(){ document.getElementById("searchbox").focus() }, 30); } } function div_off(nm){document.getElementById(nm).style.display="none";} window.onbeforeunload = function(e){div_off("submenu");} /* Disable the Search feature if we are not operating from CGI, since */ /* Search is accomplished using CGI and will not work without it. */ if( !location.origin || !location.origin.match || !location.origin.match(/http/) ){ document.getElementById("search_menubutton").style.display = "none"; } /* Used by the Hide/Show button beside syntax diagrams, to toggle the */ function hideorshow(btn,obj){ var x = document.getElementById(obj); var b = document.getElementById(btn); if( x.style.display!='none' ){ x.style.display = 'none'; b.innerHTML='show'; }else{ x.style.display = ''; b.innerHTML='hide'; } return false; } var antiRobot = 0; function antiRobotGo(){ if( antiRobot!=3 ) return; antiRobot = 7; var j = document.getElementById("mtimelink"); if(j && j.hasAttribute("data-href")) j.href=j.getAttribute("data-href"); } function antiRobotDefense(){ document.body.onmousedown=function(){ antiRobot |= 2; antiRobotGo(); document.body.onmousedown=null; } document.body.onmousemove=function(){ antiRobot |= 2; antiRobotGo(); document.body.onmousemove=null; } setTimeout(function(){ antiRobot |= 1; antiRobotGo(); }, 100) antiRobotGo(); } antiRobotDefense(); </script> <h1 align=center>SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1> <p>SQLite understands most of the standard SQL language. But it does <a href="omitted.html">omit some features</a> while at the same time adding a few features of its own. This document attempts to describe precisely what parts of the SQL language SQLite does and does not support. A list of <a href="lang_keywords.html">SQL keywords</a> is also provided. The SQL language syntax is described by <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html">syntax diagrams</a>. <p>The following syntax documentation topics are available:</p> <table width="100%" cellpadding="5" border="0"> <tr><td valign="top"><ul> <div class='columns' style='columns: 17em auto;'> <ul style='padding-top:0;'> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html'>aggregate functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_altertable.html'>ALTER TABLE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_analyze.html'>ANALYZE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_attach.html'>ATTACH DATABASE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>BEGIN TRANSACTION</a></li> <li><a href='lang_comment.html'>comment</a></li> <li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>COMMIT TRANSACTION</a></li> <li><a href='lang_corefunc.html'>core functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_createindex.html'>CREATE INDEX</a></li> <li><a href='lang_createtable.html'>CREATE TABLE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_createtrigger.html'>CREATE TRIGGER</a></li> <li><a href='lang_createview.html'>CREATE VIEW</a></li> <li><a href='lang_createvtab.html'>CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_datefunc.html'>date and time functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_delete.html'>DELETE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_detach.html'>DETACH DATABASE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_dropindex.html'>DROP INDEX</a></li> <li><a href='lang_droptable.html'>DROP TABLE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_droptrigger.html'>DROP TRIGGER</a></li> <li><a href='lang_dropview.html'>DROP VIEW</a></li> <li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>END TRANSACTION</a></li> <li><a href='lang_explain.html'>EXPLAIN</a></li> <li><a href='lang_expr.html'>expression</a></li> <li><a href='lang_indexedby.html'>INDEXED BY</a></li> <li><a href='lang_insert.html'>INSERT</a></li> <li><a href='json1.html'>JSON functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_keywords.html'>keywords</a></li> <li><a href='lang_mathfunc.html'>math functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_conflict.html'>ON CONFLICT clause</a></li> <li><a href='pragma.html#syntax'>PRAGMA</a></li> <li><a href='lang_reindex.html'>REINDEX</a></li> <li><a href='lang_savepoint.html'>RELEASE SAVEPOINT</a></li> <li><a href='lang_replace.html'>REPLACE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_returning.html'>RETURNING clause</a></li> <li><a href='lang_transaction.html'>ROLLBACK TRANSACTION</a></li> <li><a href='lang_savepoint.html'>SAVEPOINT</a></li> <li><a href='lang_select.html'>SELECT</a></li> <li><a href='lang_update.html'>UPDATE</a></li> <li><a href='lang_upsert.html'>UPSERT</a></li> <li><a href='lang_vacuum.html'>VACUUM</a></li> <li><a href='windowfunctions.html'>window functions</a></li> <li><a href='lang_with.html'>WITH clause</a></li> </ul> </div> </ul></td></tr></table> <p>The routines <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare_v2()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16_v2()</a>, <a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a>, and <a href="c3ref/free_table.html">sqlite3_get_table()</a> accept an SQL statement list (sql-stmt-list) which is a semicolon-separated list of statements.</p> <p><b><a href="syntax/sql-stmt-list.html">sql-stmt-list:</a></b></p><div class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:242px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 242.093 88.776"> <circle cx="5" cy="55" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M9,55L45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="81,55 69,59 69,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M45,55L75,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M81,70L160,70L160,39L81,39Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="121" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">sql-stmt</text> <path d="M160,55L196,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="232,55 221,59 221,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M196,55L226,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="236" cy="55" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="121,82 109,86 109,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M45,55 L 52,55 Q 60,55 60,68 Q 60,82 75,82 L 100,82 L 115,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M121,82 L 155,82 Q 170,82 170,68 Q 170,55 177,55 L 185,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M121,32A15 15 0 0 0 136 17L136,17A15 15 0 0 0 121 2A15 15 0 0 0 105 17L105,17A15 15 0 0 0 121 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="121" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">;</text> <polygon points="136,17 147,12 147,21" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M196,55 L 204,55 Q 211,55 211,40 L 211,32 Q 211,17 196,17 L 156,17 L 141,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M105,17 L 33,17 Q 18,17 18,32 L 18,40 Q 18,55 26,55 L 33,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p>Each SQL statement in the statement list is an instance of the following:</p> <p><b><a href="syntax/sql-stmt.html">sql-stmt:</a></b></p><div class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:716px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 716.88 1017.36"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,70L125,70A15 15 0 0 0 140 55L140,55A15 15 0 0 0 125 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="95" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" 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Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_aggfunc.html.
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class=nosearch> <div class="fancy_title"> Built-in Aggregate Functions </div> </div> <h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1> <p><b><a href="syntax/aggregate-function-invocation.html">aggregate-function-invocation:</a></b> <button id='x7c5141f9' onclick='hideorshow("x7c5141f9","xda5c185d")'>hide</button></p> <div id='xda5c185d' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:909px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 909.533 223.344"> <circle cx="5" cy="56" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,56 20,60 20,52" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,56L26,56" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M47,71L156,71A15 15 0 0 0 171 56A15 15 0 0 0 156 41L47,41A15 15 0 0 0 32 56A15 15 0 0 0 47 71Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="102" y="56" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">aggregate-func</text> <polygon points="189,56 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style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M83,32L127,32A15 15 0 0 0 142 17A15 15 0 0 0 127 2L83,2A15 15 0 0 0 68 17A15 15 0 0 0 83 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="105" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text> <path d="M83,70L127,70A15 15 0 0 0 142 55L142,55A15 15 0 0 0 127 39L83,39A15 15 0 0 0 68 55L68,55A15 15 0 0 0 83 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="105" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text> <path d="M83,108L168,108A15 15 0 0 0 183 92A15 15 0 0 0 168 77L83,77A15 15 0 0 0 68 92A15 15 0 0 0 83 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="125" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INTERSECT</text> <path d="M83,145L135,145A15 15 0 0 0 150 130A15 15 0 0 0 135 115L83,115A15 15 0 0 0 68 130A15 15 0 0 0 83 145Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text> <polygon points="165,55 153,59 153,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M142,55L159,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text> <polygon points="233,55 221,59 221,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M210,55L227,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="284,17 272,21 272,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M233,55 L 240,55 Q 248,55 248,40 L 248,32 Q 248,17 263,17 L 263,17 L 278,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="288" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="68,55 56,59 56,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M32,17 L 39,17 Q 47,17 47,32 L 47,40 Q 47,55 55,55 L 62,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M142,17L276,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="68,92 56,97 56,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M47,39 L 47,77 Q 47,92 55,92 L 62,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="233,92 221,97 221,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M183,92L227,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M233,92 L 240,92 Q 248,92 248,77 L 248,54 L 248,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="68,130 56,135 56,126" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M47,77 L 47,115 Q 47,130 55,130 L 62,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="233,130 221,135 221,126" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M150,130L227,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M233,130 L 240,130 Q 248,130 248,115 L 248,92 L 248,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b> <button id='x81e5a782' onclick='hideorshow("x81e5a782","x35c90381")'>show</button></p> <div id='x35c90381' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> <polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text> <polygon points="403,47 391,51 391,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M380,47L397,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> <polygon points="587,47 575,51 575,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M564,47L581,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path 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L 259,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b> <button id='x83fc0d55' onclick='hideorshow("x83fc0d55","xa2ca092e")'>show</button></p> <div id='xa2ca092e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text> <polygon points="143,55 131,59 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d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text> <polygon points="422,55 411,59 411,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M399,55L417,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="473,17 462,21 462,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M422,55 L 430,55 Q 437,55 437,40 L 437,32 Q 437,17 452,17 L 453,17 L 468,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text> 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y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> <polygon points="422,17 411,21 411,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M162,17L417,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M422,17L462,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="209,120 197,124 197,115" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,105 Q 24,120 39,120 L 188,120 L 203,120" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b> <button id='x74083e06' onclick='hideorshow("x74083e06","x6ae29795")'>show</button></p> <div id='x6ae29795' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text> <polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="231,71 219,76 219,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,56 Q 204,71 215,71 L 225,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 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d="M606,59L648,59A15 15 0 0 0 663 44L663,44A15 15 0 0 0 648 29L606,29A15 15 0 0 0 591 44L591,44A15 15 0 0 0 606 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="627" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NULLS</text> <polygon points="686,44 674,48 674,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M663,44L680,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M701,59L735,59A15 15 0 0 0 750 44L750,44A15 15 0 0 0 735 29L701,29A15 15 0 0 0 686 44L686,44A15 15 0 0 0 701 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="718" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FIRST</text> <polygon points="791,17 780,21 780,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M750,44 L 757,44 Q 765,44 765,30 Q 765,17 775,17 L 786,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M606,97L648,97A15 15 0 0 0 663 82A15 15 0 0 0 648 67L606,67A15 15 0 0 0 591 82A15 15 0 0 0 606 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="627" y="82" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NULLS</text> <polygon points="686,82 674,86 674,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M663,82L680,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="714" y="82" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LAST</text> <polygon points="591,82 579,86 579,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M564,29 L 564,67 Q 564,82 574,82 L 585,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="670,17 659,21 659,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M549,17L665,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M670,17L780,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> </div> <p> The aggregate functions shown below are available by default. There are two more aggregates grouped with the <a href="json1.html">JSON SQL functions</a>. Applications can define custom aggregate functions using the <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface. API.</p> <p> In any aggregate function that takes a single argument, that argument can be preceded by the keyword DISTINCT. In such cases, duplicate elements are filtered before being passed into the aggregate function. For example, the function "count(distinct X)" will return the number of distinct values of column X instead of the total number of non-null values in column X. </p> <a name="aggfilter"></a> <p> If a FILTER clause is provided, then only rows for which the <i>expr</i> is true are included in the aggregate. </p> <a name="aggorderby"></a> <p> If an ORDER BY clause is provided, that clause determines the order in which the inputs to the aggregate are processed. For aggregate functions like max() and count(), the input order does not matter. But for things like <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat">string_agg()</a> and <a href="json1.html#jgroupobject">json_group_object()</a>, the ORDER BY clause will make a difference in the result. If no ORDER BY clause is specified, the inputs to the aggregate occur in an arbitrary order that might change from one invocation to the next. </p> <p> See also: <a href="lang_corefunc.html">scalar functions</a> and <a href="windowfunctions.html">window functions</a>. <a name="aggfunclist"></a> </p><h1 id="list_of_built_in_aggregate_functions"><span>2. </span>List of built-in aggregate functions</h1> <div class='columns' style='columns: 11em auto;'> <ul style='padding-top:0;'> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#avg'>avg(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#count'>count(*)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#count'>count(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>group_concat(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>group_concat(X,Y)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg'>max(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg'>min(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#group_concat'>string_agg(X,Y)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc'>sum(X)</a></li> <li><a href='lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc'>total(X)</a></li> </ul> </div> <h1 id="descriptions_of_built_in_aggregate_functions"><span>3. </span>Descriptions of built-in aggregate functions</h1> <dl> <a name="avg"></a> <dt><p><b>avg(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p> The avg() function returns the average value of all non-NULL <i>X</i> within a group. String and BLOB values that do not look like numbers are interpreted as 0. The result of avg() is always a floating point value whenever there is at least one non-NULL input even if all inputs are integers. The result of avg() is NULL if there are no non-NULL inputs. The result of avg() is computed as <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc">total()</a>/<a href="lang_aggfunc.html#count">count()</a> so all of the constraints that apply to <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc">total()</a> also apply to avg(). </dd> <a name="count"></a> <dt><p><b>count(<i>X</i>)<br />count(*)</b></dt><dd><p> The count(X) function returns a count of the number of times that <i>X</i> is not NULL in a group. The count(*) function (with no arguments) returns the total number of rows in the group. </dd> <a name="group_concat"></a> <dt><p><b>group_concat(<i>X</i>)<br />group_concat(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />string_agg(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</b></dt><dd><p> The group_concat() function returns a string which is the concatenation of all non-NULL values of <i>X</i>. If parameter <i>Y</i> is present then it is used as the separator between instances of <i>X</i>.A comma (",") is used as the separator if <i>Y</i> is omitted. <p> The string_agg(X,Y) function is an alias for group_concat(X,Y). String_agg() is compatible with PostgreSQL and SQL-Server and group_concat() is compatible with MySQL. <p> The order of the concatenated elements is arbitrary unless an ORDER BY argument is included immediately after the last parameter. </dd> <a name="max_agg"></a> <dt><p><b>max(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p> The max() aggregate function returns the maximum value of all values in the group. The maximum value is the value that would be returned last in an ORDER BY on the same column. Aggregate max() returns NULL if and only if there are no non-NULL values in the group. </dd> <a name="min_agg"></a> <dt><p><b>min(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p> The min() aggregate function returns the minimum non-NULL value of all values in the group. The minimum value is the first non-NULL value that would appear in an ORDER BY of the column. Aggregate min() returns NULL if and only if there are no non-NULL values in the group. </dd> <a name="sumunc"></a> <dt><p><b>sum(<i>X</i>)<br />total(<i>X</i>)</b></dt><dd><p> The sum() and total() aggregate functions return the sum of all non-NULL values in the group. If there are no non-NULL input rows then sum() returns NULL but total() returns 0.0. NULL is not normally a helpful result for the sum of no rows but the SQL standard requires it and most other SQL database engines implement sum() that way so SQLite does it in the same way in order to be compatible. The non-standard total() function is provided as a convenient way to work around this design problem in the SQL language.</p> <p>The result of total() is always a floating point value. The result of sum() is an integer value if all non-NULL inputs are integers. If any input to sum() is neither an integer nor a NULL, then sum() returns a floating point value which is an approximation of the mathematical sum.</p> <p>Sum() will throw an "integer overflow" exception if all inputs are integers or NULL and an integer overflow occurs at any point during the computation. No overflow error is ever raised if any prior input was a floating point value. Total() never throws an integer overflow. <p>When summing floating-point values, if the magnitudes of the values differ wildly then the resulting sum might be imprecise due to the fact that <a href="floatingpoint.html#fpapprox">IEEE 754 floating point values are approximations</a>. Use the decimal_sum(X) aggregate in the <a href="floatingpoint.html#decext">decimal extension</a> to obtain an exact summation of floating point numbers. Consider this test case: <p><blockquote><pre> CREATE TABLE t1(x REAL); INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1.55e+308),(1.23),(3.2e-16),(-1.23),(-1.55e308); SELECT sum(x), decimal_sum(x) FROM t1; </pre></blockquote></p> <p>The large values ±1.55e+308 cancel each other out, but the cancellation does not occur until the end of the sum and in the meantime the large +1.55e+308 swamps the tiny 3.2e-16 value. The end result is an imprecise result for the sum(). The decimal_sum() aggregate generates an exact answer, at the cost of additional CPU and memory usage. Note also that decimal_sum() is not built into the SQLite core; it is a <a href="loadext.html">loadable extension</a>. <p>If sum of inputs is too large to represent as a IEEE 754 floating point value, then a +Infinity or -Infinity result may be returned. If very large values with differing signs are used such that the SUM() or TOTAL() function is unable to determine if the correct result is +Infinity or -Infinity or some other value in between, then the result is NULL. Hence, for example, the following query returns NULL: <p><blockquote><pre> WITH t1(x) AS (VALUES(1.0),(-9e+999),(2.0),(+9e+999),(3.0)) SELECT sum(x) FROM t1; </pre></blockquote></p> </dd> </dl> <p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink" data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_aggfunc.in?m=d872d05e39">2023-12-05 14:43:20</a> UTC </small></i></p> |
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_altertable.html.
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class=nosearch> <div class="fancy_title"> ALTER TABLE </div> </div> <h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1> <p><b><a href="syntax/alter-table-stmt.html">alter-table-stmt:</a></b> <button id='x991b9c08' onclick='hideorshow("x991b9c08","x568da75f")'>hide</button></p> <div id='x568da75f' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:754px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 754.521 320.904"> <circle cx="5" cy="32" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="37,32 26,37 26,28" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,32L31,32" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M37,32L59,32" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M74,47L113,47A15 15 0 0 0 129 32A15 15 0 0 0 113 17L74,17A15 15 0 0 0 59 32A15 15 0 0 0 74 47Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="94" y="32" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" 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<text x="87" y="126" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RENAME</text> <polygon points="150,126 139,130 139,122" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M132,126L144,126" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M165,141L171,141A15 15 0 0 0 186 126A15 15 0 0 0 171 111L165,111A15 15 0 0 0 150 126A15 15 0 0 0 165 141Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="168" y="126" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">TO</text> <polygon points="204,126 193,130 193,122" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M186,126L198,126" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M219,141L334,141A15 15 0 0 0 349 126A15 15 0 0 0 334 111L219,111A15 15 0 0 0 204 126A15 15 0 0 0 219 141Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="277" y="126" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">new-table-name</text> <polygon points="41,171 30,176 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/> <text x="519" y="994" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> <polygon points="616,994 604,998 604,989" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M544,994L610,994" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M631,1009L658,1009A15 15 0 0 0 673 994A15 15 0 0 0 658 978L631,978A15 15 0 0 0 616 994A15 15 0 0 0 631 1009Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="645" y="994" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ELSE</text> <polygon points="696,994 685,998 685,989" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M673,994L691,994" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M696,1009L746,1009L746,978L696,978Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="721" y="994" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> <polygon points="782,994 770,998 770,989" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M746,994L776,994" 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372,1025" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M544,994 L 551,994 Q 559,994 559,1007 Q 559,1021 544,1021 L 381,1021 L 366,1021" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M360,1021 L 235,1021 Q 220,1021 220,1007 Q 220,994 227,994 L 235,994" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M578,994 L 585,994 Q 593,994 593,1007 Q 593,1021 608,1021 L 742,1021 Q 757,1021 757,1007 Q 757,994 765,994 L 772,994" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M45,1066L173,1066L173,1036L45,1036Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="109" y="1051" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">raise-function</text> <polygon points="916,1051 905,1055 905,1047" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M173,1051L910,1051" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M916,1051 L 924,1051 Q 931,1051 931,1036 L 931,32 Q 931,17 939,17 L 946,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="45,1051 33,1055 33,1047" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M24,39 L 24,1036 Q 24,1051 31,1051 L 39,1051" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b> <button id='xa242d1cf' onclick='hideorshow("xa242d1cf","xf01db535")'>show</button></p> <div id='xf01db535' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:422px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 422.381 34.56"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M47,32L93,32A15 15 0 0 0 108 17A15 15 0 0 0 93 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="70" y="17" 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d="M264,17L281,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M287,32L336,32L336,2L287,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="312" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> <polygon points="359,17 348,21 348,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M336,17L353,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M374,32A15 15 0 0 0 389 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 2A15 15 0 0 0 359 17A15 15 0 0 0 374 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="374" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text> <polygon points="413,17 401,21 401,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M389,17L407,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="416" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b> <button id='x200b6f54' onclick='hideorshow("x200b6f54","xd943c26e")'>show</button></p> <div id='xd943c26e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:456px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 456.566 223.344"> <circle cx="5" cy="56" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,56 20,60 20,52" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,56L26,56" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="66,26 55,30 55,22" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M32,56 L 38,56 Q 43,56 43,41 L 43,41 Q 43,26 52,26 L 61,26" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M82,41L150,41A15 15 0 0 0 165 26L165,26A15 15 0 0 0 150 11L82,11A15 15 0 0 0 66 26L66,26A15 15 0 0 0 82 41Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="116" y="26" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" 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style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M160,29 L 168,29 Q 175,29 175,17 Q 175,6 190,6 L 327,6 L 342,6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M348,6 L 473,6 Q 488,6 488,17 Q 488,29 495,29 L 503,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b> <button id='x51a27004' onclick='hideorshow("x51a27004","xaa710ce9")'>show</button></p> <div id='xaa710ce9' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:293px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 293.842 147.96"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="68,17 56,21 56,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M32,17L62,17" 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style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text> <polygon points="165,55 153,59 153,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M142,55L159,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text> <polygon points="233,55 221,59 221,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M210,55L227,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="284,17 272,21 272,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M233,55 L 240,55 Q 248,55 248,40 L 248,32 Q 248,17 263,17 L 263,17 L 278,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="288" cy="17" r="3.6" 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style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M150,130L227,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M233,130 L 240,130 Q 248,130 248,115 L 248,92 L 248,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b> <button id='x002fa5ea' onclick='hideorshow("x002fa5ea","x22b50d0d")'>show</button></p> <div id='x22b50d0d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> <polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text> <polygon points="403,47 391,51 391,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M380,47L397,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> <polygon points="587,47 575,51 575,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M564,47L581,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path 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L 259,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b> <button id='x1d7cfc63' onclick='hideorshow("x1d7cfc63","xee87f645")'>show</button></p> <div id='xee87f645' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text> <polygon points="143,55 131,59 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d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text> <polygon points="422,55 411,59 411,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M399,55L417,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="473,17 462,21 462,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M422,55 L 430,55 Q 437,55 437,40 L 437,32 Q 437,17 452,17 L 453,17 L 468,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text> 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y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> <polygon points="422,17 411,21 411,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M162,17L417,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M422,17L462,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="209,120 197,124 197,115" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,105 Q 24,120 39,120 L 188,120 L 203,120" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> <p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b> <button id='x9b7f43ba' onclick='hideorshow("x9b7f43ba","xdedfadcc")'>show</button></p> <div id='xdedfadcc' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text> <polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="231,71 219,76 219,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,56 Q 204,71 215,71 L 225,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 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style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> <div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576"> <circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,44 39,48 39,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text> <polygon points="122,17 111,21 111,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M81,44 L 88,44 Q 96,44 96,30 Q 96,17 106,17 L 116,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M137,32L244,32A15 15 0 0 0 259 17A15 15 0 0 0 244 2L137,2A15 15 0 0 0 122 17A15 15 0 0 0 137 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="191" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">numeric-literal</text> <polygon points="282,17 271,21 271,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M259,17L276,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <circle cx="286" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="50,82 39,86 39,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,67 Q 24,82 34,82 L 45,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text> <path d="M81,82 L 88,82 Q 96,82 96,67 L 96,44 L 96,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <polygon points="66,17 54,21 54,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> <path d="M9,17L60,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> <path d="M66,17L111,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> </svg> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <p>SQLite supports a limited subset of ALTER TABLE. The ALTER TABLE command in SQLite allows these alterations of an existing table: it can be renamed; a column can be renamed; a column can be added to it; or a column can be dropped from it. <a name="altertabrename"></a> </p><h1 id="alter_table_rename"><span>2. </span>ALTER TABLE RENAME</h1> <p> The RENAME TO syntax changes the name of <span class='yyterm'>table-name</span> to <span class='yyterm'>new-table-name</span>. This command cannot be used to move a table between attached databases, only to rename a table within the same database. If the table being renamed has triggers or indices, then these remain attached to the table after it has been renamed. </p><blockquote style="background-color: #ffd0d0;"> <b>Compatibility Note:</b> The behavior of ALTER TABLE when renaming a table was enhanced in versions 3.25.0 (2018-09-15) and 3.26.0 (2018-12-01) in order to carry the rename operation forward into triggers and views that reference the renamed table. This is considered an improvement. Applications that depend on the older (and arguably buggy) behavior can use the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_alter_table">PRAGMA legacy_alter_table=ON</a> statement or the <a href="c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html#sqlitedbconfiglegacyaltertable">SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE</a> configuration parameter on <a href="c3ref/db_config.html">sqlite3_db_config()</a> interface to make ALTER TABLE RENAME behave as it did prior to version 3.25.0. </blockquote> <p> Beginning with release 3.25.0 (2018-09-15), references to the table within trigger bodies and view definitions are also renamed. </p> <p> Prior to version 3.26.0 (2018-12-01), FOREIGN KEY references to a table that is renamed were only edited if the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=ON</a>, or in other words if <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> were being enforced. With <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=OFF</a>, FOREIGN KEY constraints would not be changed when the table that the foreign key referred to (the "<a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">parent table</a>") was renamed. Beginning with version 3.26.0, FOREIGN KEY constraints are always converted when a table is renamed, unless the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_alter_table">PRAGMA legacy_alter_table=ON</a> setting is engaged. The following table summarizes the difference:</p> <blockquote> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"> <tr> <th>PRAGMA foreign_keys </th><th>PRAGMA legacy_alter_table </th><th><a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">Parent Table</a> references are updated </th><th>SQLite version </th></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">< 3.26.0 </td></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">>= 3.26.0 </td></tr><tr><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">all </td></tr><tr><td align="center">Off</td><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">No</td><td align="center">all </td></tr><tr><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">On</td><td align="center">Yes</td><td align="center">all </td></tr></table> </blockquote> <a name="altertabmvcol"></a> <h1 id="alter_table_rename_column"><span>3. </span>ALTER TABLE RENAME COLUMN</h1> <p> The RENAME COLUMN TO syntax changes the <span class='yyterm'>column-name</span> of table <span class='yyterm'>table-name</span> into <span class='yyterm'>new-column-name</span>. The column name is changed both within the table definition itself and also within all indexes, triggers, and views that reference the column. If the column name change would result in a semantic ambiguity in a trigger or view, then the RENAME COLUMN fails with an error and no changes are applied. <a name="altertabaddcol"></a> </p><h1 id="alter_table_add_column"><span>4. </span>ALTER TABLE ADD COLUMN</h1> <p> The ADD COLUMN syntax is used to add a new column to an existing table. The new column is always appended to the end of the list of existing columns. The <a href="syntax/column-def.html">column-def</a> rule defines the characteristics of the new column. The new column may take any of the forms permissible in a <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> statement, with the following restrictions: </p><ul> <li>The column may not have a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint.</li> <li>The column may not have a default value of CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, or an expression in parentheses.</li> <li>If a NOT NULL constraint is specified, then the column must have a default value other than NULL. </li><li>If <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> are <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">enabled</a> and a column with a <a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">REFERENCES clause</a> is added, the column must have a default value of NULL. </li><li>The column may not be <a href="gencol.html">GENERATED ALWAYS ... STORED</a>, though VIRTUAL columns are allowed. </li></ul> <p>When adding a column with a <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a>, or a NOT NULL constraint on a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>, the added constraints are tested against all preexisting rows in the table and the ADD COLUMN fails if any constraint fails. The testing of added constraints against preexisting rows is a new enhancement as of SQLite version 3.37.0 (2021-11-27).</p> <p>The ALTER TABLE command works by modifying the SQL text of the schema stored in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>. No changes are made to table content for renames or column addition without constraints. Because of this, the execution time of such ALTER TABLE commands is independent of the amount of data in the table and such commands will run as quickly on a table with 10 million rows as on a table with 1 row. When adding new columns that have CHECK constraints, or adding generated columns with NOT NULL constraints, or when deleting columns, then all existing data in the table must be either read (to test new constraints against existing rows) or written (to remove deleted columns). In those cases, the ALTER TABLE command takes time that is proportional to the amount of content in the table being altered. </p> <p>After ADD COLUMN has been run on a database, that database will not be readable by SQLite version 3.1.3 (2005-02-20) and earlier.</p> <a name="altertabdropcol"></a> <h1 id="alter_table_drop_column"><span>5. </span>ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN</h1> <p> The DROP COLUMN syntax is used to remove an existing column from a table. The DROP COLUMN command removes the named column from the table, and rewrites its content to purge the data associated with that column. The DROP COLUMN command only works if the column is not referenced by any other parts of the schema and is not a PRIMARY KEY and does not have a UNIQUE constraint. Possible reasons why the DROP COLUMN command can fail include: </p><ul> <li>The column is a PRIMARY KEY or part of one. </li><li>The column has a UNIQUE constraint. </li><li>The column is indexed. </li><li>The column is named in the WHERE clause of a <a href="partialindex.html">partial index</a>. </li><li>The column is named in a table or column <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a> not associated with the column being dropped. </li><li>The column is used in a <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a>. </li><li>The column is used in the expression of a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>. </li><li>The column appears in a trigger or view. </li></ul> <h2 id="how_it_works"><span>5.1. </span>How It Works</h2> <p>SQLite stores the schema as plain text in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>. The DROP COLUMN command (and all of the other variations of ALTER TABLE as well) modify that text and then attempt to reparse the entire schema. The command is only successful if the schema is still valid after the text has been modified. In the case of the DROP COLUMN command, the only text modified is that the column definition is removed from the CREATE TABLE statement. The DROP COLUMN command will fail if there are any traces of the column in other parts of the schema that will prevent the schema from parsing after the CREATE TABLE statement has been modified. </p><h1 id="disable_error_checking_using_pragma_writable_schema_on"><span>6. </span>Disable Error Checking Using PRAGMA writable_schema=ON</h1> <p>ALTER TABLE will normally fail and make no changes if it encounters any entries in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a> that do not parse. For example, if there is a malformed VIEW or TRIGGER associated with table named "tbl1", then an attempt to rename "tbl1" to "tbl1neo" will fail because the associated views and triggers could not be parsed. </p><p>Beginning with SQLite 3.38.0 (2022-02-22), this error checking can be disabled by setting "<a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=ON;</a>". When the schema is writable, ALTER TABLE silently ignores any rows of the sqlite_schema table that do not parse. <a name="otheralter"></a> </p><h1 id="making_other_kinds_of_table_schema_changes"><span>7. </span>Making Other Kinds Of Table Schema Changes</h1> <p> The only schema altering commands directly supported by SQLite are the "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabrename">rename table</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabmvcol">rename column</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabaddcol">add column</a>", "<a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabdropcol">drop column</a>" commands shown above. However, applications can make other arbitrary changes to the format of a table using a simple sequence of operations. The steps to make arbitrary changes to the schema design of some table X are as follows: </p><ol> <li><p> If foreign key constraints are enabled, disable them using <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">PRAGMA foreign_keys=OFF</a>. </p></li><li><p> Start a transaction. </p></li><li><p> Remember the format of all indexes, triggers, and views associated with table X. This information will be needed in step 8 below. One way to do this is to run a query like the following: SELECT type, sql FROM sqlite_schema WHERE tbl_name='X'. </p></li><li><p> Use <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> to construct a new table "new_X" that is in the desired revised format of table X. Make sure that the name "new_X" does not collide with any existing table name, of course. </p></li><li><p> Transfer content from X into new_X using a statement like: INSERT INTO new_X SELECT ... FROM X. </p></li><li><p> Drop the old table X: <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE X</a>. </p></li><li><p> Change the name of new_X to X using: ALTER TABLE new_X RENAME TO X. </p></li><li><p> Use <a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a>, <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a>, and <a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a> to reconstruct indexes, triggers, and views associated with table X. Perhaps use the old format of the triggers, indexes, and views saved from step 3 above as a guide, making changes as appropriate for the alteration. </p></li><li><p>If any views refer to table X in a way that is affected by the schema change, then drop those views using <a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a> and recreate them with whatever changes are necessary to accommodate the schema change using <a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a>. </p></li><li><p> If foreign key constraints were originally enabled then run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_key_check">PRAGMA foreign_key_check</a> to verify that the schema change did not break any foreign key constraints. </p></li><li><p> Commit the transaction started in step 2. </p></li><li><p> If foreign keys constraints were originally enabled, reenable them now. </p></li></ol> <a name="caution"></a> <p> <b>Caution:</b> Take care to follow the procedure above precisely. The boxes below summarize two procedures for modifying a table definition. At first glance, they both appear to accomplish the same thing. However, the procedure on the right does not always work, especially with the enhanced <a href="lang_altertable.html#altertabrename">rename table</a> capabilities added by versions 3.25.0 and 3.26.0. In the procedure on the right, the initial rename of the table to a temporary name might corrupt references to that table in triggers, views, and foreign key constraints. The safe procedure on the left constructs the revised table definition using a new temporary name, then renames the table into its final name, which does not break links. </p><center> <table border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <ol> <li>Create new table </li><li>Copy data </li><li>Drop old table </li><li>Rename new into old </li></ol> </td><td valign="top"> <ol> <li>Rename old table </li><li>Create new table </li><li>Copy data </li><li>Drop old table </li></ol> </td></tr><tr> <th>↑<br>Correct </th><th>↑<br>Incorrect </th></tr></table> </center> <p>The 12-step <a href="lang_altertable.html#otheralter">generalized ALTER TABLE procedure</a> above will work even if the schema change causes the information stored in the table to change. So the full 12-step procedure above is appropriate for dropping a column, changing the order of columns, adding or removing a UNIQUE constraint or PRIMARY KEY, adding CHECK or FOREIGN KEY or NOT NULL constraints, or changing the datatype for a column, for example. However, a simpler and faster procedure can optionally be used for some changes that do no affect the on-disk content in any way. The following simpler procedure is appropriate for removing CHECK or FOREIGN KEY or NOT NULL constraints, or adding, removing, or changing default values on a column. </p><ol> <li><p> Start a transaction. </p></li><li><p> Run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_schema_version">PRAGMA schema_version</a> to determine the current schema version number. This number will be needed for step 6 below. </p></li><li><p> Activate schema editing using <a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=ON</a>. </p></li><li><p> Run an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statement to change the definition of table X in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema table</a>: UPDATE sqlite_schema SET sql=... WHERE type='table' AND name='X'; </p><p><em>Caution:</em> Making a change to the sqlite_schema table like this will render the database corrupt and unreadable if the change contains a syntax error. It is suggested that careful testing of the UPDATE statement be done on a separate blank database prior to using it on a database containing important data. </p></li><li><p> If the change to table X also affects other tables or indexes or triggers are views within schema, then run <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statements to modify those other tables indexes and views too. For example, if the name of a column changes, all FOREIGN KEY constraints, triggers, indexes, and views that refer to that column must be modified. </p><p><em>Caution:</em> Once again, making changes to the sqlite_schema table like this will render the database corrupt and unreadable if the change contains an error. Carefully test this entire procedure on a separate test database prior to using it on a database containing important data and/or make backup copies of important databases prior to running this procedure. </p></li><li><p> Increment the schema version number using <a href="pragma.html#pragma_schema_version">PRAGMA schema_version=X</a> where X is one more than the old schema version number found in step 2 above. </p></li><li><p> Disable schema editing using <a href="pragma.html#pragma_writable_schema">PRAGMA writable_schema=OFF</a>. </p></li><li><p> (Optional) Run <a href="pragma.html#pragma_integrity_check">PRAGMA integrity_check</a> to verify that the schema changes did not damage the database. </p></li><li><p> Commit the transaction started on step 1 above. </p></li></ol> <p>If some future version of SQLite adds new ALTER TABLE capabilities, those capabilities will very likely use one of the two procedures outlined above. <a name="altertableishard"></a> </p><h1 id="why_alter_table_is_such_a_problem_for_sqlite"><span>8. </span>Why ALTER TABLE is such a problem for SQLite</h1> <p>Most SQL database engines store the schema already parsed into various system tables. On those database engines, ALTER TABLE merely has to make modifications to the corresponding system tables. </p><p>SQLite is different in that it stores the schema in the <a href="schematab.html">sqlite_schema</a> table as the original text of the CREATE statements that define the schema. Hence ALTER TABLE needs to revise the text of the CREATE statement. Doing so can be tricky for certain "creative" schema designs. </p><p>The SQLite approach of storing the schema as text has advantages for an embedded relational database. For one, it means that the schema takes up less space in the database file. This is important since a common SQLite usage pattern is to have many small, separate database files instea |