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Overview
Comment:Refresh all included SQLite core library documentation (e.g. SQL syntax).
Downloads: Tarball | ZIP archive
Timelines: family | ancestors | descendants | both | trunk
Files: files | file ages | folders
SHA1: 3e112a45045e10f940ddbbeda0357b2353b3df34
User & Date: mistachkin 2014-02-05 01:39:53.751
Context
2014-02-05
01:46
Update table-of-contents topic names. check-in: 837439ff91 user: mistachkin tags: trunk
01:39
Refresh all included SQLite core library documentation (e.g. SQL syntax). check-in: 3e112a4504 user: mistachkin tags: trunk
01:39
Update version history docs. Closed-Leaf check-in: 6e651ad0df user: mistachkin tags: coreDocs
2014-02-04
22:55
Reorganize the documentation files. check-in: 6fc137b4c3 user: mistachkin tags: trunk
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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html><head>
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<title>Query Language Understood by SQLite</title>
<style type="text/css">
body {
    margin: auto;
    font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;
    padding: 8px 1%;
}

a { color: #044a64 }
a:visited { color: #734559 }

.logo { position:absolute; margin:3px; }
.tagline {
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}

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  background: #044a64;
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  margin: 0px;
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}    
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}
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.fancy li p { margin: 1em 0 }
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</style>
  
</head>
<body>
<div><!-- container div to satisfy validator -->

<a href="index.html">
<img class="logo" src="images/sqlite370_banner.gif" alt="SQLite Logo"
 border="0"></a>
<div><!-- IE hack to prevent disappearing logo--></div>
<div class="tagline">Small. Fast. Reliable.<br>Choose any three.</div>

<table width=100% class="menubar"><tr>
  <td width=100%>
  <div class="toolbar">
    <a href="about.html">About</a>
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  </div>
<script>
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<div class=startsearch></div>
  


<h1 align=center>SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>

<p>SQLite understands most of the standard SQL
language.  But it does <a href="omitted.html">omit some features</a>
while at the same time
adding a few features of its own.  This document attempts to
describe precisely what parts of the SQL language SQLite does
and does not support.  A list of <a href="lang_keywords.html">SQL keywords</a> is 
also provided.  The SQL language syntax is described by
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html">syntax diagrams</a>.

<p>The following syntax documentation topics are available:</p>

<table width="100%" cellpadding="5" border="0">
<tr><td valign="top"><ul>

<li><a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate functions</a></li><li><a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a></li><li><a href="lang_analyze.html">ANALYZE</a></li><li><a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH DATABASE</a></li><li><a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN TRANSACTION</a></li><li><a href="lang_comment.html">comment</a></li><li><a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT TRANSACTION</a></li><li><a href="lang_corefunc.html">core functions</a></li><li><a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a></li><li><a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a></li><li><a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a></li><li><a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a></li><li><a href="lang_createvtab.html">CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</a></li></ul></td><td valign="top"><ul><li><a href="lang_datefunc.html">date and time functions</a></li><li><a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a></li><li><a href="lang_detach.html">DETACH DATABASE</a></li><li><a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a></li><li><a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a></li><li><a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a></li><li><a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a></li><li><a href="lang_transaction.html">END TRANSACTION</a></li><li><a href="lang_explain.html">EXPLAIN</a></li><li><a href="lang_expr.html">expression</a></li><li><a href="lang_indexedby.html">INDEXED BY</a></li><li><a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a></li><li><a href="lang_keywords.html">keywords</a></li></ul></td><td valign="top"><ul><li><a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT clause</a></li><li><a href="pragma.html#syntax">PRAGMA</a></li><li><a href="lang_reindex.html">REINDEX</a></li><li><a href="lang_savepoint.html">RELEASE SAVEPOINT</a></li><li><a href="lang_replace.html">REPLACE</a></li><li><a href="lang_transaction.html">ROLLBACK TRANSACTION</a></li><li><a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a></li><li><a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a></li><li><a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a></li><li><a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a></li><li><a href="lang_with.html">WITH clause</a></li>
</ul></td></tr></table>

<p>The routines <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare_v2()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a>,
<a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16()</a>, <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare16_v2()</a>, 
<a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a>, and <a href="c3ref/free_table.html">sqlite3_get_table()</a> accept
an SQL statement list (sql-stmt-list) which is a semicolon-separated
list of statements.</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#sql-stmt-list">sql-stmt-list:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram sql-stmt-list" src="images/syntax/sql-stmt-list.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>


<p>Each SQL statement in the statement list is an instance of the
following:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#sql-stmt">sql-stmt:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram sql-stmt" src="images/syntax/sql-stmt.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>
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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html><head>
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<title>SQLite Query Language: Aggregate Functions</title>
<style type="text/css">
body {
    margin: auto;
    font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;
    padding: 8px 1%;
}

a { color: #044a64 }
a:visited { color: #734559 }

.logo { position:absolute; margin:3px; }
.tagline {
  float:right;
  text-align:right;
  font-style:italic;
  width:300px;
  margin:12px;
  margin-top:58px;
}

.menubar {
  clear: both;
  border-radius: 8px;
  background: #044a64;
  padding: 0px;
  margin: 0px;
  cell-spacing: 0px;
}    
.toolbar {
  text-align: center;
  line-height: 1.6em;
  margin: 0;
  padding: 0px 8px;
}
.toolbar a { color: white; text-decoration: none; padding: 6px 12px; }
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.content dd { margin-bottom: 25px; margin-left:20%; }
.content ul { padding:0px; padding-left: 15px; margin:0px; }

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.fancy img+p {font-style:italic}
.fancy .codeblock i { color: darkblue; }
.fancy h1,.fancy h2,.fancy h3,.fancy h4 {font-weight:normal;color:#044a64}
.fancy h2 { margin-left: 10px }
.fancy h3 { margin-left: 20px }
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>Aggregate Functions</h2>

<p>
The aggregate functions shown below are available by default.  Additional
aggregate functions written in C may be added using the 
<a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a></a>
API.</p>

<p>
In any aggregate function that takes a single argument, that argument
can be preceded by the keyword DISTINCT.  In such cases, duplicate
elements are filtered before being passed into the aggregate function.
For example, the function "count(distinct X)" will return the number
of distinct values of column X instead of the total number of non-null
values in column X.
</p>

<table border=0 cellpadding=10>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="avg"></a>
avg(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The avg() function
  returns the average value of all non-NULL <i>X</i> within a
  group.  String and BLOB values that do not look like numbers are
  interpreted as 0.
  The result of avg() is always a floating point value as long as
  at there is at least one non-NULL input even if all
  inputs are integers.  The result of avg() is NULL if and only if
  there are no non-NULL inputs.  
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="count"></a>
count(<i>X</i>)<br />count(*)</td><td valign="top">
  The count(X) function returns
  a count of the number of times
  that <i>X</i> is not NULL in a group.  The count(*) function
  (with no arguments) returns the total number of rows in the group.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="groupconcat"></a>
group_concat(<i>X</i>)<br />group_concat(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The group_concat() function returns
  a string which is the concatenation of
  all non-NULL values of <i>X</i>.  If parameter <i>Y</i> is present then
  it is used as the separator
  between instances of <i>X</i>.  A comma (",") is used as the separator
  if <i>Y</i> is omitted.  The order of the concatenated elements is
  arbitrary.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="maxggunc"></a>
max(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The max() aggregate function
  returns the maximum value of all values in the group.
  The maximum value is the value that would be returned last in an
  ORDER BY on the same column.  Aggregate max() returns NULL 
  if and only if there are no non-NULL values in the group.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="minggunc"></a>
min(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The min() aggregate function
  returns the minimum non-NULL value of all values in the group.
  The minimum value is the first non-NULL value that would appear
  in an ORDER BY of the column.
  Aggregate min() returns NULL if and only if there are no non-NULL
  values in the group.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="sumunc"></a>
sum(<i>X</i>)<br />total(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The sum() and total() aggregate functions
  return sum of all non-NULL values in the group.
  If there are no non-NULL input rows then sum() returns
  NULL but total() returns 0.0.
  NULL is not normally a helpful result for the sum of no rows
  but the SQL standard requires it and most other
  SQL database engines implement sum() that way so SQLite does it in the
  same way in order to be compatible.   The non-standard total() function
  is provided as a convenient way to work around this design problem
  in the SQL language.</p>

  <p>The result of total() is always a floating point value.
  The result of sum() is an integer value if all non-NULL inputs are integers.
  If any input to sum() is neither an integer or a NULL
  then sum() returns a floating point value
  which might be an approximation to the true sum.</p>

  <p>Sum() will throw an "integer overflow" exception if all inputs
  are integers or NULL
  and an integer overflow occurs at any point during the computation.
  Total() never throws an integer overflow.
</td></tr>
</table>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        ALTER TABLE</h4>
      <p>
















        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ALTER TABLE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">alteration</font></i><b><font





                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">alteration</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>















              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">RENAME TO </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">new-table-name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">alteration</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ADD </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">COLUMN</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-def</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>








        </table>




      </p>
      <p>
        SQLite's version of the ALTER TABLE command allows the user to rename or add a new
        column to an existing table. It is not possible to remove a column from a table.








      </p>


      <p>
        The RENAME TO syntax is used to rename the table identified by <i>[database-name.]table-name</i>
        to <i>new-table-name</i>. This command cannot be used to move a table between attached
        databases, only to rename a table within the same database.</p>
      <p>
        If the table being renamed has triggers or indices, then these remain attached to
        the table after it has been renamed. However, if there are any view definitions,
        or statements executed by triggers that refer to the table being renamed, these
        are not automatically modified to use the new table name. If this is required, the
        triggers or view definitions must be dropped and recreated to use the new table
        name by hand.
      </p>




      <p>
        The ADD [COLUMN] syntax is used to add a new column to an existing table. The new
        column is always appended to the end of the list of existing columns. <i>Column-def</i>
        may take any of the forms permissable in a CREATE TABLE statement, with the following
        restrictions:



















      </p>








      <ul>
        <li>The column may not have a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint. </li>
        <li>The column may not have a default value of CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP.
        </li>


        <li>If a NOT NULL constraint is specified, then the column must have a default value
          other than NULL. </li>



      </ul>
      <p>


        The execution time of the ALTER TABLE command is independent of the amount of data

        in the table. The ALTER TABLE command runs as quickly on a table with 10 million
        rows as it does on a table with 1 row.






      </p>
      <p>
        After ADD COLUMN has been run on a database, that database will not be readable


        by SQLite version 3.1.3 and earlier until the database is <a href="lang_vacuum.html">



          VACUUM</a>ed.</p>






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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>ALTER TABLE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#alter-table-stmt">alter-table-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x729' onclick='hideorshow("x729","x730")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x730'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram alter-table-stmt" src="images/syntax/alter-table-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-def">column-def:</a></b>
<button id='x731' onclick='hideorshow("x731","x732")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x732' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram column-def" src="images/syntax/column-def.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-constraint">column-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x733' onclick='hideorshow("x733","x734")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x734' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram column-constraint" src="images/syntax/column-constraint.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x735' onclick='hideorshow("x735","x736")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x736' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram conflict-clause" src="images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x737' onclick='hideorshow("x737","x738")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x738' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x739' onclick='hideorshow("x739","x740")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x740' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x741' onclick='hideorshow("x741","x742")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x742' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x743' onclick='hideorshow("x743","x744")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x744' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x745' onclick='hideorshow("x745","x746")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x746' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>



<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x747' onclick='hideorshow("x747","x748")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x748' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x749' onclick='hideorshow("x749","x750")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x750' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x751' onclick='hideorshow("x751","x752")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x752' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x753' onclick='hideorshow("x753","x754")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x754' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />



</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x755' onclick='hideorshow("x755","x756")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x756' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x757' onclick='hideorshow("x757","x758")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x758' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#foreign-key-clause">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x759' onclick='hideorshow("x759","x760")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x760' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram foreign-key-clause" src="images/syntax/foreign-key-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x761' onclick='hideorshow("x761","x762")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x762' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x763' onclick='hideorshow("x763","x764")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x764' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x765' onclick='hideorshow("x765","x766")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x766' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x767' onclick='hideorshow("x767","x768")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x768' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>


</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>SQLite supports a limited subset of ALTER TABLE.
The ALTER TABLE command in SQLite allows the user to rename a table
or to add a new column to an existing table.
</p>

<p> The RENAME TO syntax is used to rename the table identified by 
<i>&#91;database-name.&#93;table-name</i> to <i>new-table-name</i>.
This command 
cannot be used to move a table between attached databases, only to rename 
a table within the same database.</p>

<p> If the table being renamed has triggers or indices, then these remain
attached to the table after it has been renamed.  However, if there are
any view definitions, or statements executed by triggers that refer to
the table being renamed, these are not automatically modified to use the new
table name. If this is required, the triggers or view definitions must be
dropped and recreated to use the new table name by hand.
</p>


<p>If <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> are 
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">enabled</a> when a table is renamed, then any
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#foreign-key-clause">REFERENCES clauses</a> in any table (either the
table being renamed or some other table)
that refer to the table being renamed are modified to refer 
to the renamed table by its new name.

<p> The ADD COLUMN syntax
is used to add a new column to an existing table.
The new column is always appended to the end of the list of existing columns.
The <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-def">column-def</a> rule defines the characteristics of the new column.
The new column may take any of the forms permissible in a <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a>
statement, with the following restrictions:
<ul>
<li>The column may not have a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint.</li>
<li>The column may not have a default value of CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE, 
    CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, or an expression in parentheses.</li>
<li>If a NOT NULL constraint is specified, then the column must have a
    default value other than NULL.
<li>If <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> are <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_keys">enabled</a> and
    a column with a <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#foreign-key-clause">REFERENCES clause</a>
    is added, the column must have a default value of NULL.
</ul>



<p>Note also that when adding a <a href="lang_createtable.html#ckconst">CHECK constraint</a>, the CHECK constraint
is not tested against preexisting rows of the table.
This can result in a table that contains data that
is in violation of the CHECK constraint.  Future versions of SQLite might
change to validate CHECK constraints as they are added.</p>

<p> The execution time of the ALTER TABLE command is independent of
the amount of data in the table.  The ALTER TABLE command runs as quickly
on a table with 10 million rows as it does on a table with 1 row.
</p>

<p>After ADD COLUMN has been run on a database, that database will not
be readable by SQLite version 3.1.3 and earlier.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_analyze.html. 
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">ANALYZE</span>&nbsp;</td>
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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
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            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>




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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        ANALYZE</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>





              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ANALYZE</font></b></td>
          </tr>






        </table>

        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ANALYZE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ANALYZE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>

      <p>







        The ANALYZE command gathers statistics about indices and stores them in a special

        tables in the database where the query optimizer can use them to help make better

        index choices. If no arguments are given, all indices in all attached databases
        are analyzed. If a database name is given as the argument, all indices in that one

        database are analyzed. If the argument is a table name, then only indices associated
        with that one table are analyzed.</p>

      <p>
        The initial implementation stores all statistics in a single table named <b>sqlite_stat1</b>.










        Future enhancements may create additional tables with the same name pattern except
        with the "1" changed to a different digit. The <b>sqlite_stat1</b> table cannot be <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP</a>ped, but all the content can be <a href="lang_delete.html">
          DELETE</a>d which has the same effect.</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>ANALYZE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#analyze-stmt">analyze-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x769' onclick='hideorshow("x769","x770")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x770'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram analyze-stmt" src="images/syntax/analyze-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p> The ANALYZE command gathers statistics about tables and
indices and stores the collected information
in <a href="fileformat2.html#intschema">internal tables</a> of the database where the query optimizer can
access the information and use it to help make better query planning choices.
If no arguments are given, all attached databases are
analyzed.  If a database name is given as the argument, then all tables
and indices in that one database are analyzed.  
If the argument is a table name, then only that table and the
indices associated with that table are analyzed.  If the argument
is an index name, then only that one index is analyzed.</p>

<p> The default implementation stores all statistics in a single
table named "<a href="fileformat2.html#stat1tab">sqlite_stat1</a>".  If SQLite is compiled with the
<a href="compile.html#enable_stat3">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT3</a> option and without the <a href="compile.html#enable_stat4">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT4</a>
option, then additional histogram data is
collected and stored in <a href="fileformat2.html#stat3tab">sqlite_stat3</a>.
 If SQLite is compiled with the
<a href="compile.html#enable_stat4">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT4</a> option, then additional histogram data is
collected and stored in <a href="fileformat2.html#stat4tab">sqlite_stat4</a>.
Older versions of SQLite would make use of the <a href="fileformat2.html#stat2tab">sqlite_stat2</a> table
when compiled with <a href="compile.html#enable_stat2">SQLITE_ENABLE_STAT2</a> but all recent versions of
SQLite ignore the sqlite_stat2 table.
Future enhancements may create



additional <a href="fileformat2.html#intschema">internal tables</a> with the same name pattern except with
final digit larger than "4".
All of these tables are collectively referred to as "statistics tables".
</p>

<p> The content of the statistics tables can be queried using <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>
and can be changed using the <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, and <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> commands.
The <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> command works on statistics tables
as of SQLite version 3.7.9.
The <a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a> command does not work on statistics tables.
Appropriate care should be used when changing the content of the statistics
tables as invalid content can cause SQLite to select inefficient
query plans.  Generally speaking, one should not modify the content of
the statistics tables by any mechanism other than invoking the
ANALYZE command.  
See "<a href="optoverview.html#manctrl">Manual Control Of Query Plans Using SQLITE_STAT Tables</a>" for
further information.</p>

<p> Statistics gathered by ANALYZE are not automatically updated as
the content of the database changes.  If the content of the database
changes significantly, or if the database schema changes, then one should
consider rerunning the ANALYZE command in order to update the statistics.</p>

<p> The query planner loads the content of the statistics tables
into memory when the schema is read.  Hence, when an application
changes the statistics tables directly, SQLite will not immediately
notice the changes. An application
can force the query planner to reread the statistics tables by running
<b>ANALYZE sqlite_master</b>. </p>

<p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_attach.html. 
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>

        ATTACH DATABASE</h4>
      <p>













        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ATTACH </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">DATABASE</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-filename</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> AS </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font





                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>
        The ATTACH DATABASE statement adds another database file to the current database
        connection. If the filename contains punctuation characters it must be quoted. The
        names 'main' and 'temp' refer to the main database and the database used for temporary
        tables. These cannot be detached. Attached databases are removed using the <a href="lang_detach.html">
          DETACH DATABASE</a> statement.</p>



      <p>
        You can read from and write to an attached database and you can modify the schema
        of the attached database. This is a new feature of SQLite version 3.0. In SQLite
        2.8, schema changes to attached databases were not allowed.</p>



















      <p>
        You cannot create a new table with the same name as a table in an attached database,
        but you can attach a database which contains tables whose names are duplicates of
        tables in the main database. It is also permissible to attach the same database
        file multiple times.</p>
      <p>
        Tables in an attached database can be referred to using the syntax <i>database-name.table-name</i>.
        If an attached table doesn't have a duplicate table name in the main database, it
        doesn't require a database name prefix. When a database is attached, all of its
        tables which don't have duplicate names become the default table of that name. Any
        tables of that name attached afterwards require the table prefix. If the default
        table of a given name is detached, then the last table of that name attached becomes






















        the new default.</p>













      <p>
        Transactions involving multiple attached databases are atomic, assuming that the
        main database is not ":memory:". If the main database is ":memory:" then transactions
        continue to be atomic within each individual database file. But if the host computer
        crashes in the middle of a COMMIT where two or more database files are updated,

        some of those files might get the changes where others might not. Atomic commit


        of attached databases is a new feature of SQLite version 3.0. In SQLite version

        2.8, all commits to attached databases behaved as if the main database were ":memory:".


      </p>
      <p>
        There is a compile-time limit of 10 attached database files.</p>
      <p>
      <hr>



        &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>ATTACH DATABASE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#attach-stmt">attach-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x771' onclick='hideorshow("x771","x772")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x772'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram attach-stmt" src="images/syntax/attach-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x773' onclick='hideorshow("x773","x774")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x774' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x775' onclick='hideorshow("x775","x776")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x776' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x777' onclick='hideorshow("x777","x778")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x778' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x779' onclick='hideorshow("x779","x780")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x780' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x781' onclick='hideorshow("x781","x782")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x782' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x783' onclick='hideorshow("x783","x784")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x784' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x785' onclick='hideorshow("x785","x786")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x786' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x787' onclick='hideorshow("x787","x788")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x788' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x789' onclick='hideorshow("x789","x790")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x790' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x791' onclick='hideorshow("x791","x792")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x792' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x793' onclick='hideorshow("x793","x794")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x794' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x795' onclick='hideorshow("x795","x796")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x796' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x797' onclick='hideorshow("x797","x798")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x798' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x799' onclick='hideorshow("x799","x800")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x800' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p> The ATTACH DATABASE statement adds another database 
file to the current <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a>. 
The filename for the database to be attached is the value of
the expression that occurs before the AS keyword.
The filename of the database follows the same semantics as the
filename argument to <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open()</a> and <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open_v2()</a>; the
special name "<a href="inmemorydb.html">:memory:</a>" results in an <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory database</a> and an
empty string results in a new temporary database.
The filename argument can be a <a href="uri.html">URI filename</a> if URI filename processing
is enable on the database connection.  The default behavior is for
URI filenames to be disabled, however that might change in a future release
of SQLite, so application developers are advised to plan accordingly.



<p>The name that occurs after the AS keyword is the name of the database
used internally by SQLite.
The database-names 'main' and 
'temp' refer to the main database and the database used for 
temporary tables.  The main and temp databases cannot be attached or
detached.</p>

<p> Tables in an attached database can be referred to using the syntax 
<i>database-name.table-name</i>.  If the name of the table is unique
across all attached databases and the main and temp databases, then the
<i>database-name</i> prefix is not required.  If two or more tables in
different databases have the same name and the 
<i>database-name</i> prefix is not used on a table reference, then the
table chosen is the one in the database that was least recently attached.</p>


<p>
Transactions involving multiple attached databases are atomic,
assuming that the main database is not "<a href="inmemorydb.html">:memory:</a>" and the 
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">journal_mode</a> is not <a href="wal.html">WAL</a>.  If the main
database is ":memory:" or if the journal_mode is WAL, then 
transactions continue to be atomic within each individual
database file. But if the host computer crashes in the middle
of a <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> where two or more database files are updated,
some of those files might get the changes where others
might not.
</p>

<p> There is a limit, set using <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit()</a> and 
<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitattached">SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED</a>, to the number of databases that can be
simultaneously attached to a single database connection.</p>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        comment</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">comment</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">SQL-comment</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font
                  color="#ff3434">C-comment</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>




              <i><font color="#ff3434">SQL-comment</font></i> ::=</td>


            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">-- </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">single-line</font></i><b><font


                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>















          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">C-comment</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">/<big>*</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">multiple-lines</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>*</big>/</font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>







        </table>
      </p>

      <p>







        Comments aren't SQL commands, but can occur in SQL queries. They are treated as


        whitespace by the parser. They can begin anywhere whitespace can be found, including
        inside expressions that span multiple lines.
      </p>
      <p>
        SQL comments only extend to the end of the current line.</p>


      <p>
        C comments can span any number of lines. If there is no terminating delimiter, they

        extend to the end of the input. This is not treated as an error. A new SQL statement

        can begin on a line after a multiline comment ends. C comments can be embedded anywhere
        whitespace can occur, including inside expressions, and in the middle of
          other SQL
        statements. C comments do not nest. SQL comments inside a C comment will be ignored.
      </p>
      <p>
      <hr>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>comment</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#comment-syntax">comment-syntax:</a></b>
<button id='x805' onclick='hideorshow("x805","x806")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x806'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram comment-syntax" src="images/syntax/comment-syntax.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>Comments are not SQL commands, but can occur within the text of
SQL queries passed to <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare_v2()</a> and related interfaces.
Comments are treated as whitespace by the parser.
Comments can begin anywhere whitespace 
can be found, including inside expressions that span multiple lines.
</p>

<p>SQL comments begin with two consecutive "-" characters (ASCII 0x2d)
and extend up to and including the next newline character (ASCII 0x0a)
or until the end of input, whichever comes first.</p>

<p>C-style comments begin
with "/*" and extend up to and including the next "*/" character pair
or until the end of input, whichever comes first.  C-style comments
can span multiple lines. </p>

<p>Comments can appear anywhere whitespace can occur,
including inside expressions and in the middle of other SQL statements.
Comments do not nest.
</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_conflict.html. 
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    <title>ON CONFLICT</title>
    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../Include/ndoc.css" />
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  <body>


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        <tr id="headerTableRow1">

          <td align="left">
            <span id="runningHeaderText">ON CONFLICT clause</span>&nbsp;</td>
        </tr>
        <tr id="headerTableRow2">
          <td align="left">
            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>

          </td>
        </tr>


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          <td>
            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>
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    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">

      <h1 class="heading">

        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>


        ON CONFLICT clause</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ON CONFLICT </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-algorithm</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>





          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-algorithm</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ROLLBACK </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                ABORT </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> FAIL </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> IGNORE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> REPLACE</font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>
        The ON CONFLICT clause is not a separate SQL command. It is a non-standard clause
        that can appear in many
          other SQL commands. It is given its own section in this
        document because it is not part of standard SQL and therefore might not be familiar.</p>
      <p>









        The syntax for the ON CONFLICT clause is as shown above for the CREATE TABLE command.
        For the INSERT and UPDATE commands, the keywords "ON CONFLICT" are replaced by "OR",











        to make the syntax seem more natural. For example, instead of "INSERT ON CONFLICT

        IGNORE" we have "INSERT OR IGNORE". The keywords change but the meaning of the clause

        is the same either way.</p>
      <p>
        The ON CONFLICT clause specifies an algorithm used to resolve constraint conflicts.
        There are five choices: ROLLBACK, ABORT, FAIL, IGNORE, and REPLACE. The default
        algorithm is ABORT. This is what they mean:</p>



      <dl>
        <dt><b>ROLLBACK</b> </dt>
        <dd>
          <p>
            When a constraint violation occurs, an immediate ROLLBACK occurs, thus ending the

            current transaction, and the command aborts with a return code of SQLITE_CONSTRAINT.





            If no transaction is active (other than the implied transaction that is created
            on every command) then this algorithm works the same as ABORT.</p>




        </dd>
        <dt><b>ABORT</b> </dt>
        <dd>
          <p>
            When a constraint violation occurs, the command backs out any prior changes it might





            have made and aborts with a return code of SQLITE_CONSTRAINT. But no ROLLBACK is


            executed so changes from prior commands within the same transaction are preserved.




            This is the default behavior.</p>
        </dd>
        <dt><b>FAIL</b> </dt>
        <dd>
          <p>

            When a constraint violation occurs, the command aborts with a return code SQLITE_CONSTRAINT.
            But any changes to the database that the command made prior to encountering the
            constraint violation are preserved and are not backed out. For example, if an UPDATE
            statement encountered a constraint violation on the 100th row that it attempts to



            update, then the first 99 row changes are preserved but changes to rows 100 and
            beyond never occur.</p>
        </dd>
        <dt><b>IGNORE</b> </dt>
        <dd>
          <p>
            When a constraint violation occurs, the one row that contains the constraint violation
            is not inserted or changed. But the command continues executing normally. Other
            rows before and after the row that contained the constraint violation continue to
            be inserted or updated normally. No error is returned.</p>




        </dd>
        <dt><b>REPLACE</b> </dt>
        <dd>
          <p>
            When a UNIQUE constraint violation occurs, the pre-existing rows that are causing





            the constraint violation are removed prior to inserting or updating the current


            row. Thus the insert or update always occurs. The command continues executing normally.

            No error is returned. If a NOT NULL constraint violation occurs, the NULL value
            is replaced by the default value for that column. If the column has no default value,

            then the ABORT algorithm is used. If a CHECK constraint violation occurs then the




            IGNORE algorithm is used.</p>
          <p>
            When this conflict resolution strategy deletes rows in order to satisfy a constraint,
            it does not invoke delete triggers on those rows. This behavior might change in
            a future release.</p>
        </dd>
      </dl>
      <p>
        The algorithm specified in the OR clause of a INSERT or UPDATE overrides any algorithm
        specified in a CREATE TABLE. If no algorithm is specified anywhere, the ABORT algorithm




        is used.</p>
      <p>
      <hr>

        &nbsp;</p>
      <div id="footer">



        <p>
          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>




        </p>
      </div>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>ON CONFLICT clause</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1117' onclick='hideorshow("x1117","x1118")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1118'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram conflict-clause" src="images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The ON CONFLICT clause is not a separate SQL command.  It is a
non-standard clause that can appear in many other SQL commands.
It is given its own section in this document because it is not
part of standard SQL and therefore might not be familiar.</p>



<p>The syntax for the ON CONFLICT clause is as shown above for
the CREATE TABLE command.  For the INSERT and
UPDATE commands, the keywords "ON CONFLICT" are replaced by "OR" so that
the syntax reads more naturally.  For example, instead of
"INSERT ON CONFLICT IGNORE" we have "INSERT OR IGNORE".
The keywords change but the meaning of the clause is the same
either way.</p>

<p>The ON CONFLICT clause applies to UNIQUE and NOT NULL
constraints (and to PRIMARY KEY constraints which for the purposes 
of this section are the same thing as UNIQUE constraints).
The ON CONFLICT algorithm does not
apply to <a href="foreignkeys.html">FOREIGN KEY constraints</a>.
There are five conflict resolution algorithm choices:
ROLLBACK, ABORT, FAIL, IGNORE, and REPLACE.
The default conflict resolution algorithm is ABORT.  This
is what they mean:</p>

<dl>

<dt><b>ROLLBACK</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the ROLLBACK


resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement with
an SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error and rolls back the current transaction.
If no transaction is
active (other than the implied transaction that is created on every
command) then the ROLLBACK resolution algorithm works the same as the
ABORT algorithm.</p></dd>

<dt><b>ABORT</b></dt>


<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the ABORT
resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement

with an SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error and backs out any changes
made by the current SQL statement; but changes caused
by prior SQL statements within the same transaction are preserved and the
transaction remains active.
This is the default behavior and the behavior specified by the SQL
standard.</p></dd>

<dt><b>FAIL</b></dt>

<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, the FAIL
resolution algorithm aborts the current SQL statement with an
SQLITE_CONSTRAINT error.  But the FAIL resolution does not
back out prior changes of the SQL statement that failed nor does
it end the transaction.
For example, if an UPDATE
statement encountered a constraint violation on the 100th row that
it attempts to update, then the first 99 row changes are preserved
but changes to rows 100 and beyond never occur.</p></dd>

<dt><b>IGNORE</b></dt>
<dd><p> When an applicable constraint violation occurs, 

the IGNORE resolution algorithm skips the one row that contains
the constraint violation and continues processing subsequent rows
of the SQL statement as if nothing went wrong.
Other rows before and after the row that
contained the constraint violation are inserted or updated
normally. No error is returned when the IGNORE conflict resolution
algorithm is used.</p></dd>





<dt><b>REPLACE</b></dt>
<dd><p> When a UNIQUE constraint violation occurs, the REPLACE algorithm
deletes pre-existing rows that are causing the constraint violation
prior to inserting or updating the current row and the command continues 
executing normally.
If a NOT NULL constraint violation occurs, the REPLACE conflict
resolution replaces the NULL value with
the default value for that column, or if the column has no default
value, then the ABORT algorithm is used.


If a CHECK constraint violation occurs, the REPLACE conflict resolution
algorithm always works like ABORT.</p>

<p>When the REPLACE conflict resolution strategy deletes rows in order to
satisfy a constraint, <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">delete triggers</a> fire if and only if
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_recursive_triggers">recursive triggers</a> are enabled.</p>



<p>The <a href="c3ref/update_hook.html">update hook</a> is not invoked for rows that
are deleted by the REPLACE conflict resolution strategy.  Nor does
REPLACE increment the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">change counter</a>.
The exceptional behaviors defined in this paragraph might change 
in a future release.</p>
</dl>

<p>The algorithm specified in the OR clause of an INSERT or UPDATE
overrides any algorithm specified in a CREATE TABLE.
If no algorithm is specified anywhere, the ABORT algorithm is used.</p>
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_corefunc.html. 






































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>Core Functions</h2>

<p>The core functions shown below are available by default. 
<a href="lang_datefunc.html">Date &amp; Time functions</a> and
<a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate functions</a> are documented separately.  An
application may define additional
functions written in C and added to the database engine using
the <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> API.</p>

<table border=0 cellpadding=10>
<tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="abs"></a>
abs(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The abs(X) function returns the absolute value of the numeric
  argument X.  Abs(X) returns NULL if X is NULL. 
  Abs(X) return 0.0 if X is a string or blob
  that cannot be converted to a numeric value.  If X is the 
  integer -9223372036854775808 then abs(X) throws an integer overflow
  error since there is no equivalent positive 64-bit two complement value.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="changes"></a>
changes()</td><td valign="top">
  The changes() function returns the number of database rows that were changed
  or inserted or deleted by the most recently completed INSERT, DELETE,
  or UPDATE statement, exclusive of statements in lower-level triggers.
  The changes() SQL function is a wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a>
  C/C++ function and hence follows the same rules for counting changes.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="char"></a>
char(<i>X1</i>,<i>X2</i>,...,<i>XN</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The char(X1,X2,...,XN) function returns a string composed of characters having the
   unicode code point values of integers X1 through XN, respectively.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="coalesce"></a>
coalesce(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td><td valign="top">
  The coalesce() function returns a copy of its first non-NULL argument, or
  NULL if all arguments are NULL.  Coalesce() must have at least 
  2 arguments.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="glob"></a>
glob(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The glob(X,Y) function is equivalent to the
  expression "<b>Y GLOB X</b>".
  Note that the X and Y arguments are reversed in the glob() function
  relative to the infix <a href="lang_expr.html#glob">GLOB</a> operator.
  If the <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface is used to
  override the glob(X,Y) function with an alternative implementation then
  the <a href="lang_expr.html#glob">GLOB</a> operator will invoke the alternative implementation.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="ifnull"></a>
ifnull(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The ifnull() function returns a copy of its first non-NULL argument, or
  NULL if both arguments are NULL.  Ifnull() must have exactly 2 arguments.
  The ifnull() function is equivalent to <a href="lang_corefunc.html#coalesce">coalesce()</a> with two arguments.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="instr"></a>
instr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The instr(X,Y) function finds the first occurrence of string Y within 
  string X and returns the number of prior characters plus 1, or 0 if
  Y is nowhere found within X.
  Or, if X and Y are both BLOBs, then instr(X,Y) returns one
  more than the number bytes prior to the first occurrence of Y, or 0 if
  Y does not occur anywhere within X.
  If both arguments X and Y to instr(X,Y) are non-NULL and are not BLOBs
  then both are interpreted as strings.
  If either X or Y are NULL in instr(X,Y) then the result is NULL.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="hex"></a>
hex(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The hex() function interprets its argument as a BLOB and returns
  a string which is the upper-case hexadecimal rendering of the content of
  that blob.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="last_insert_rowid"></a>
last_insert_rowid()</td><td valign="top">
  The last_insert_rowid() function returns the <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">ROWID</a>
  of the last row insert from the database connection which invoked the
  function.
  The last_insert_rowid() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/last_insert_rowid.html">sqlite3_last_insert_rowid()</a> C/C++ interface function.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="length"></a>
length(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  For a string value X, the length(X) function returns the number of 
  characters (not bytes) in X prior to the first NUL character.
  Since SQLite strings do not normally contain NUL characters, the length(X)
  function will usually return the total number of characters in the string X.
  For a blob value X, length(X) returns the number of bytes in the blob.
  If X is NULL then length(X) is NULL.
  If X is numeric then length(X) returns the length of a string
  representation of X.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="like"></a>
like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The like() function is used to implement the
  "<b>Y LIKE X &#91;ESCAPE Z&#93;</b>" expression. 
  If the optional ESCAPE clause is present, then the
  like() function is invoked with three arguments.  Otherwise, it is
  invoked with two arguments only. Note that the X and Y parameters are
  reversed in the like() function relative to the infix <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator.
  The <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface can be used to override the
  like() function and thereby change the operation of the
  <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator.  When overriding the like() function, it may be important
  to override both the two and three argument versions of the like() 
  function. Otherwise, different code may be called to implement the
  <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator depending on whether or not an ESCAPE clause was 
  specified.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="likelihood"></a>
likelihood(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The likelihood(X,Y) function returns argument X unchanged.
  The value Y in likelihood(X,Y) must be a floating point constant
  between 0.0 and 1.0, inclusive.
  The likelihood(X) function is a no-op that the code generator
  optimizes away so that it consumes no CPU cycles during run-time
  (that is, during calls to <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>).
  The purpose of the likelihood(X,Y) function is to provide a hint
  to the query planner that the argument X is a boolean that is
  true with a probability of approximately Y.
  The <a href="lang_corefunc.html#unlikely">unlikely(X)</a> function is short-hand for likelihood(X,0.0625).
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="load_extension"></a>
load_extension(<i>X</i>)<br />load_extension(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The load_extension(X,Y) function loads <a href="loadext.html">SQLite extensions</a> out of the shared
  library file named X using the entry point Y.  The result of load_extension()
  is always a NULL.  If Y is omitted then the default entry point name is used.
  The load_extension() function raises an exception if the extension fails to
  load or initialize correctly.

  <p>The load_extension() function will fail if the extension attempts to 
  modify or delete an SQL function or collating sequence.  The
  extension can add new functions or collating sequences, but cannot
  modify or delete existing functions or collating sequences because
  those functions and/or collating sequences might be used elsewhere
  in the currently running SQL statement.  To load an extension that
  changes or deletes functions or collating sequences, use the
  <a href="c3ref/load_extension.html">sqlite3_load_extension()</a> C-language API.</p>

  <p>For security reasons, extension loaded is turned off by default and must
  be enabled by a prior call to <a href="c3ref/enable_load_extension.html">sqlite3_enable_load_extension()</a>.</p>
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="lower"></a>
lower(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The lower(X) function returns a copy of string X with all ASCII characters
  converted to lower case.  The default built-in lower() function works
  for ASCII characters only.  To do case conversions on non-ASCII
  characters, load the ICU extension.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="ltrim"></a>
ltrim(<i>X</i>)<br />ltrim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The ltrim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from the left side of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, ltrim(X) removes spaces from the left side
  of X.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="maxoreunc"></a>
max(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td><td valign="top">
  The multi-argument max() function returns the argument with the 
  maximum value, or return NULL if any argument is NULL. 
  The multi-argument max() function searches its arguments from left to right
  for an argument that defines a collating function and uses that collating
  function for all string comparisons.  If none of the arguments to max()
  define a collating function, then the BINARY collating function is used.
  Note that <b>max()</b> is a simple function when
  it has 2 or more arguments but operates as an
  <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#minggunc">aggregate function</a> if given only a single argument.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="minoreunc"></a>
min(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td><td valign="top">
  The multi-argument min() function returns the argument with the
  minimum value.
  The multi-argument min() function searches its arguments from left to right
  for an argument that defines a collating function and uses that collating
  function for all string comparisons.  If none of the arguments to min()
  define a collating function, then the BINARY collating function is used.
  Note that <b>min()</b> is a simple function when
  it has 2 or more arguments but operates as an 
  <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#maxggunc">aggregate function</a> if given
  only a single argument.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="nullif"></a>
nullif(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The nullif(X,Y) function returns its first argument if the arguments are
  different and NULL if the arguments are the same.  The nullif(X,Y) function
  searches its arguments from left to right for an argument that defines a
  collating function and uses that collating function for all string
  comparisons.  If neither argument to nullif() defines a collating function
  then the BINARY is used.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="printf"></a>
printf(<i>FORMAT</i>,...)</td><td valign="top">
  The printf(FORMAT,...) SQL function works like the <a href="c3ref/mprintf.html">sqlite3_mprintf()</a> C-language
  function and the printf() function from the standard C library.
  The first argument is a format string that specifies how to construct the output
  string using values taken from subsequent arguments.  If the FORMAT argument is
  missing or NULL then the result is NULL.  The %n format is silently ignored and
  does not consume an argument.  The %p format is an alias for %X.  The %z format
  is interchangeable with %s.  If there are too few arguments in the argument list,
  missing arguments are assumed to have a NULL value, which is translated into
  0 or 0.0 for numeric formats or an empty string for %s.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="quote"></a>
quote(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The quote(X) function returns the text of an SQL literal which
  is the value of its argument suitable for inclusion into an SQL statement.
  Strings are surrounded by single-quotes with escapes on interior quotes
  as needed.  BLOBs are encoded as hexadecimal literals.
  Strings with embedded NUL characters cannot be represented as string
  literals in SQL and hence the returned string literal is truncated prior
  to the first NUL.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="random"></a>
random()</td><td valign="top">
  The random() function returns a pseudo-random integer
  between -9223372036854775808 and +9223372036854775807.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="randomblob"></a>
randomblob(<i>N</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The randomblob(N) function return an N-byte blob containing pseudo-random
  bytes. If N is less than 1 then a 1-byte random blob is returned.

  <p>Hint:  applications can generate globally unique identifiers
  using this function together with <a href="lang_corefunc.html#hex">hex()</a> and/or
  <a href="lang_corefunc.html#lower">lower()</a> like this:</p>

  <blockquote>
  hex(randomblob(16))<br></br>
  lower(hex(randomblob(16)))
  </blockquote>
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="replace"></a>
replace(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The replace(X,Y,Z) function returns a string formed by substituting
  string Z for every occurrence of string Y in string X.  The <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a>
  collating sequence is used for comparisons.  If Y is an empty
  string then return X unchanged.  If Z is not initially
  a string, it is cast to a UTF-8 string prior to processing.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="round"></a>
round(<i>X</i>)<br />round(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The round(X,Y) function returns a floating-point
  value X rounded to Y digits to the right of the decimal point.
  If the Y argument is omitted, it is assumed to be 0.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="rtrim"></a>
rtrim(<i>X</i>)<br />rtrim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The rtrim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from the right side of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, rtrim(X) removes spaces from the right
  side of X.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="soundex"></a>
soundex(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The soundex(X) function returns a string that is the soundex encoding 
  of the string X.
  The string "?000" is returned if the argument is NULL or contains
  no ASCII alphabetic characters.
  This function is omitted from SQLite by default.
  It is only available if the <a href="compile.html#soundex">SQLITE_SOUNDEX</a> compile-time option
  is used when SQLite is built.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="sqlite_compileoption_get"></a>
sqlite_compileoption_get(<i>N</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The sqlite_compileoption_get() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/compileoption_get.html">sqlite3_compileoption_get()</a> C/C++ function.
  This routine returns the N-th compile-time option used to build SQLite
  or NULL if N is out of range.  See also the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_compile_options">compile_options pragma</a>.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="sqlite_compileoption_used"></a>
sqlite_compileoption_used(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The sqlite_compileoption_used() SQL function is a wrapper around the
  <a href="c3ref/compileoption_get.html">sqlite3_compileoption_used()</a> C/C++ function.
  When the argument X to sqlite_compileoption_used(X) is a string which
  is the name of a compile-time option, this routine returns true (1) or
  false (0) depending on whether or not that option was used during the
  build.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="sqlite_source_id"></a>
sqlite_source_id()</td><td valign="top">
  The sqlite_source_id() function returns a string that identifies the
  specific version of the source code that was used to build the SQLite
  library.  The string returned by sqlite_source_id() begins with
  the date and time that the source code was checked in and is follows by
  an SHA1 hash that uniquely identifies the source tree.  This function is
  an SQL wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/libversion.html">sqlite3_sourceid()</a> C interface.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="sqlite_version"></a>
sqlite_version()</td><td valign="top">
  The sqlite_version() function returns the version string for the SQLite
  library that is running.  This function is an SQL
  wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/libversion.html">sqlite3_libversion()</a> C-interface.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="substr"></a>
substr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)<br />substr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The substr(X,Y,Z) function returns a substring of input string X that begins
  with the Y-th character and which is Z characters long.
  If Z is omitted then substr(X,Y) returns all characters through the end
  of the string X beginning with the Y-th.
  The left-most character of X is number 1.  If Y is negative
  then the first character of the substring is found by counting from the
  right rather than the left.  If Z is negative then
  the abs(Z) characters preceding the Y-th character are returned.
  If X is a string then characters indices refer to actual UTF-8 
  characters.  If X is a BLOB then the indices refer to bytes.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="total_changes"></a>
total_changes()</td><td valign="top">
  The total_changes() function returns the number of row changes
  caused by INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE
  statements since the current database connection was opened.
  This function is a wrapper around the <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a>
  C/C++ interface.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="trim"></a>
trim(<i>X</i>)<br />trim(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The trim(X,Y) function returns a string formed by removing any and all
  characters that appear in Y from both ends of X.
  If the Y argument is omitted, trim(X) removes spaces from both ends of X.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="typeof"></a>
typeof(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The typeof(X) function returns a string that indicates the <a href="datatype3.html">datatype</a> of
  the expression X: "null", "integer", "real", "text", or "blob".
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="unlikely"></a>
unlikely(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The unlikely(X) function returns the argument X unchanged.
  The unlikely(X) function is a no-op that the code generator
  optimizes away so that it consumes no CPU cycles at
  run-time (that is, during calls to <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>).
  The purpose of the unlikely(X) function is to provide a hint
  to the query planner that the argument X is a boolean value
  that is usually not true. The unlikely(X) function is equivalent
  to <a href="lang_corefunc.html#likelihood">likelihood</a>(X, 0.0625).
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="unicode"></a>
unicode(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The unicode(X) function returns the numeric unicode code point corresponding to
  the first character of the string X.  If the argument to unicode(X) is not a string
  then the result is undefined.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="upper"></a>
upper(<i>X</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The upper(X) function returns a copy of input string X in which all 
  lower-case ASCII characters are converted to their upper-case equivalent.
</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="right" width="120"><a name="zeroblob"></a>
zeroblob(<i>N</i>)</td><td valign="top">
  The zeroblob(N) function returns a BLOB consisting of N bytes of 0x00.
  SQLite manages these zeroblobs very efficiently.  Zeroblobs can be used to
  reserve space for a BLOB that is later written using 
  <a href="c3ref/blob_open.html">incremental BLOB I/O</a>.
  This SQL function is implemented using the <a href="c3ref/result_blob.html">sqlite3_result_zeroblob()</a>
  routine from the C/C++ interface.
</td></tr>
</table>
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">CREATE INDEX</span>&nbsp;</td>








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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
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            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>
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      <h1 class="heading">



        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>

        CREATE INDEX</h4>
      <p>










        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">UNIQUE</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> INDEX </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">IF NOT EXISTS</font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font





                    color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>


              <i><font color="#ff3434">index-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">

                <br />

                ON </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                    column-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big></font></b></td>






          </tr>




          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i> ::=</td>








            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> COLLATE </font></b><i><font
                  color="#ff3434">collation-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> ASC </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"> DESC </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>




          </tr>








        </table>




      </p>
      <p>
        The CREATE INDEX command consists of the keywords "CREATE INDEX" followed by the
        name of the new index, the keyword "ON", the name of a previously created table
        that is to be indexed, and a parenthesized list of names of columns in the table
        that are used for the index key. Each column name can be followed by one of the
        "ASC" or "DESC" keywords to indicate sort order, but the sort order is ignored in
        the current implementation. Sorting is always done in ascending order.</p>




      <p>
        The COLLATE clause following each column name defines a collating sequence used
        for text entires in that column. The default collating sequence is the collating
        sequence defined for that column in the CREATE TABLE statement. Or if no collating
        sequence is otherwise defined, the built-in BINARY collating sequence is used.</p>















      <p>
        There are no arbitrary limits on the number of indices that can be attached to a
        single table, nor on the number of columns in an index.</p>

      <p>
        If the UNIQUE keyword appears between CREATE and INDEX then duplicate index entries
        are not allowed. Any attempt to insert a duplicate entry will result in an error.</p>
      <p>






        The exact text of each CREATE INDEX statement is stored in the <b>sqlite_master</b>
        or <b>sqlite_temp_master</b> table, depending on whether the table being indexed
        is temporary. Every time the database is opened, all CREATE INDEX statements are

        read from the <b>sqlite_master</b> table and used to regenerate
        SQLite's internal
        representation of the index layout.</p>

      <p>
        If the optional IF NOT EXISTS clause is present and another index with the same name aleady exists, then this command becomes a no-op.</p>

      <p>









        Indexes are removed with the <a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a> command.</p>
      <p>
      <hr>





        &nbsp;</p>
      <div id="footer">




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          &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>CREATE INDEX</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#create-index-stmt">create-index-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x807' onclick='hideorshow("x807","x808")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x808'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram create-index-stmt" src="images/syntax/create-index-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x809' onclick='hideorshow("x809","x810")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x810' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x811' onclick='hideorshow("x811","x812")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x812' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x813' onclick='hideorshow("x813","x814")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x814' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x815' onclick='hideorshow("x815","x816")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x816' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x817' onclick='hideorshow("x817","x818")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x818' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>





<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x819' onclick='hideorshow("x819","x820")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x820' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x821' onclick='hideorshow("x821","x822")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x822' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x823' onclick='hideorshow("x823","x824")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x824' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x825' onclick='hideorshow("x825","x826")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x826' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>






<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x827' onclick='hideorshow("x827","x828")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x828' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>




<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x829' onclick='hideorshow("x829","x830")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x830' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x831' onclick='hideorshow("x831","x832")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x832' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x833' onclick='hideorshow("x833","x834")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x834' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x835' onclick='hideorshow("x835","x836")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x836' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>

</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#indexed-column">indexed-column:</a></b>
<button id='x837' onclick='hideorshow("x837","x838")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x838' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram indexed-column" src="images/syntax/indexed-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The CREATE INDEX command consists of the keywords "CREATE INDEX" followed
by the name of the new index, the keyword "ON", the name of a previously
created table that is to be indexed, and a parenthesized list of names of
columns in the table that are used for the index key.

If the optional WHERE clause is included, then the index is a "<a href="partialindex.html">partial index</a>".
</p>

<a name="descidx"></a>

<p>Each column name can be followed by one of the "ASC" or "DESC" keywords
to indicate sort order.  The sort order may or may not be ignored depending
on the database file format, and in particular the <a href="fileformat2.html#schemaformat">schema format number</a>.
The "legacy" schema format (1) ignores index
sort order.  The descending index schema format (4) takes index sort order
into account.  Only versions of SQLite 3.3.0 and later are able to understand
the descending index format. For compatibility, version of SQLite between 3.3.0
and 3.7.9 use the legacy schema format by default.  The newer schema format is
used by default in version 3.7.10 and later.
The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_legacy_file_format">legacy_file_format pragma</a> can be used to change set the specific
behavior for any version of SQLite.</p>

<p>The COLLATE clause optionally following each column name defines a
collating sequence used for text entries in that column.
The default collating
sequence is the collating sequence defined for that column in the
<a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> statement.  Or if no collating sequence is otherwise defined,
the built-in BINARY collating sequence is used.</p>

<p>There are no arbitrary limits on the number of indices that can be
attached to a single table.  The number of columns in an index is 
limited to the value set by
<a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit</a>(<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitcolumn">SQLITE_LIMIT_COLUMN</a>,...).</p>

<a name="uniqueidx"></a>

<p>If the UNIQUE keyword appears between CREATE and INDEX then duplicate
index entries are not allowed.  Any attempt to insert a duplicate entry
will result in an error.  For the purposes of unique indices, all NULL values
are considered to different from all other NULL values and are thus unique.
This is one of the two possible interpretations of the SQL-92 standard
(the language in the standard is ambiguous) and is the interpretation
followed by PostgreSQL, MySQL, Firebird, and Oracle.  Informix and
Microsoft SQL Server follow the other interpretation of the standard.</p>

<p>If the optional IF NOT EXISTS clause is present and another index
with the same name already exists, then this command becomes a no-op.</p>

<p>Indexes are removed with the <a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a> command.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtable.html. 
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>



        CREATE TABLE</h4>

      <p>
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            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>




              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TEMP </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> TEMPORARY</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                TABLE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">IF NOT EXISTS</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>(</big><br />




                &nbsp; &nbsp; </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-def</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">


                  column-def</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font

















                    color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    &nbsp; &nbsp; </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">constraint</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  <big>)</big></font></b></td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TEMP </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> TEMPORARY</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                TABLE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"><big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> AS </font>























              </b><i><font color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">column-def</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>

              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">type</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>[<b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0">CONSTRAINT </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                        column-constraint</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font

                          color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>




          </tr>








          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>











              <i><font color="#ff3434">type</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">typename</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">typename</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>
                  (</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">number</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">typename</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>
                      (</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">number</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        <big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">number</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          <big>)</big></font></b></td>




























          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">column-constraint</font></i> ::=</td>

            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT NULL </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
              </b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                PRIMARY KEY </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">sort-order</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">AUTOINCREMENT</font></b>]<b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                      UNIQUE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i><b><font
                        color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                          color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          CHECK <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">












                            <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                              DEFAULT </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">value</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">



                              </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />


                                COLLATE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">collation-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">constraint</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">PRIMARY KEY <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                column-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font></b>[<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                      UNIQUE <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font
                        color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
              </b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                CHECK <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">

                  <big>)</big></font></b></td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-clause</font></i> ::=</td>



            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ON CONFLICT </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-algorithm</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>








        </table>
      </p>
      <p>







        A CREATE TABLE statement is basically the keywords "CREATE TABLE" followed by the


        name of a new table and a parenthesized list of column definitions and constraints.

        The table name can be either an identifier or a string. Tables names that begin




























        with "<b>sqlite_</b>" are reserved for use by the engine.</p>
      <p>
        Each column definition is the name of the column followed by the datatype for that
        column, then one or more optional column constraints. The datatype for the column
        does not restrict what data may be put in that column. See <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/datatype3.html">
          Datatypes In SQLite Version 3</a> for additional information. The UNIQUE constraint
        causes an index to be created on the specified columns. This index must contain
        unique keys. The COLLATE clause specifies what text <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/datatype3.html#collation">
          collating function</a> to use when comparing text entries for the column. The
        built-in BINARY collating function is used by default.






      </p>




      <p>
        The DEFAULT constraint specifies a default value to use when doing an INSERT. The



        value may be NULL, a string constant or a number. Starting with version 3.1.0, the

        default value may also be one of the special case-independant keywords CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP. If the value is NULL, a string constant or number,



        it is literally inserted into the column whenever an INSERT statement that does












        not specify a value for the column is executed. If the value is CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE
        or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, then the current UTC date and/or time is inserted into the
        columns. For CURRENT_TIME, the format is HH:MM:SS. For CURRENT_DATE, YYYY-MM-DD.

        The format for CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is "YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS".
      </p>
      <p>



        Specifying a PRIMARY KEY normally just creates a UNIQUE index on the corresponding




        columns. However, if primary key is on a single column that has datatype INTEGER,

        then that column is used internally as the actual key of the B-Tree for the table.

        This means that the column may only hold unique integer values. (Except for this

        one case, SQLite ignores the datatype specification of columns and allows any kind
        of data to be put in a column regardless of its declared datatype.) If a table does





        not have an INTEGER PRIMARY KEY column, then the B-Tree key will be a automatically


        generated integer. The B-Tree key for a row can always be accessed using one of
        the special names "<b>ROWID</b>", "<b>OID</b>", or "<b>_ROWID_</b>". This is true


        regardless of whether or not there is an INTEGER PRIMARY KEY. An INTEGER PRIMARY
        KEY column man also include the keyword AUTOINCREMENT. The AUTOINCREMENT keyword

        modified the way that B-Tree keys are automatically generated. Additional detail














        on automatic B-Tree key generation is available <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/autoinc.html">
          separately</a>.</p>
      <p>






        If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY" keyword occurs in between "CREATE" and "TABLE" then
        the table that is created is only visible within that same database connection and

        is automatically deleted when the database connection is closed. Any indices created



        on a temporary table are also temporary. Temporary tables and indices are stored
        in a separate file distinct from the main database file.</p>
      <p>
        If a &lt;database-name&gt; is specified, then the table is created in the named
        database. It is an error to specify both a &lt;database-name&gt; and the TEMP keyword,
        unless the &lt;database-name&gt; is "temp". If no database name is specified, and
        the TEMP keyword is not present, the table is created in the main database.</p>




      <p>
        The optional conflict-clause following each constraint allows the specification
        of an alternative default constraint conflict resolution algorithm for that constraint. The default is abort ABORT. Different constraints within the same table may have
        different default conflict resolution algorithms. If an COPY, INSERT, or UPDATE
        command specifies a different conflict resolution algorithm, then that algorithm
        is used in place of the default algorithm specified in the CREATE TABLE statement.


        See the section titled <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional

        information.</p>


      <p>
        CHECK constraints are supported as of version 3.3.0. Prior to version 3.3.0, CHECK
        constraints were parsed but not enforced.</p>
      <p>

        There are no arbitrary limits on the number of columns or on the number of constraints





        in a table. The total amount of data in a single row is limited to about 1 megabytes










        in version 2.8. In version 3.0 there is no arbitrary limit on the amount of data

        in a row.</p>

      <p>
        The CREATE TABLE AS form defines the table to be the result set of a query. The
        names of the table columns are the names of the columns in the result.</p>
      <p>

        The exact text of each CREATE TABLE statement is stored in the <b>sqlite_master</b>
        table. Every time the database is opened, all CREATE TABLE statements are read from
        the <b>sqlite_master</b> table and used to regenerate
        SQLite's internal representation
        of the table layout. If the original command was a CREATE TABLE AS then then an
        equivalent CREATE TABLE statement is synthesized and store in <b>sqlite_master</b>
        in place of the original command. The text of CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE statements


        are stored in the <b>sqlite_temp_master</b> table.






      </p>









      <p>








        If the optional IF NOT EXISTS clause is present and another table with the same
        name aleady exists, then this command becomes a no-op.</p>
      <p>
        Tables are removed using the <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> statement.


      </p>
      <p>
      <hr>
        &nbsp;</p>

      <div id="footer">
        <p>

          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>







        </p>







      </div>




    </div>


    </div>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>CREATE TABLE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#create-table-stmt">create-table-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x839' onclick='hideorshow("x839","x840")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x840'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram create-table-stmt" src="images/syntax/create-table-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-def">column-def:</a></b>

<button id='x841' onclick='hideorshow("x841","x842")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x842' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram column-def" src="images/syntax/column-def.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-constraint">column-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x843' onclick='hideorshow("x843","x844")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x844' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram column-constraint" src="images/syntax/column-constraint.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x845' onclick='hideorshow("x845","x846")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x846' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram conflict-clause" src="images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x847' onclick='hideorshow("x847","x848")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x848' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x849' onclick='hideorshow("x849","x850")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x850' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#foreign-key-clause">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x851' onclick='hideorshow("x851","x852")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x852' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram foreign-key-clause" src="images/syntax/foreign-key-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x853' onclick='hideorshow("x853","x854")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x854' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x855' onclick='hideorshow("x855","x856")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x856' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x857' onclick='hideorshow("x857","x858")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x858' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x859' onclick='hideorshow("x859","x860")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x860' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x861' onclick='hideorshow("x861","x862")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x862' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x863' onclick='hideorshow("x863","x864")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x864' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x865' onclick='hideorshow("x865","x866")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x866' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x867' onclick='hideorshow("x867","x868")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x868' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x869' onclick='hideorshow("x869","x870")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x870' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x871' onclick='hideorshow("x871","x872")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x872' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x873' onclick='hideorshow("x873","x874")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x874' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x875' onclick='hideorshow("x875","x876")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x876' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>

</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x877' onclick='hideorshow("x877","x878")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x878' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x879' onclick='hideorshow("x879","x880")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x880' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x881' onclick='hideorshow("x881","x882")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x882' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x883' onclick='hideorshow("x883","x884")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x884' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x885' onclick='hideorshow("x885","x886")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x886' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x887' onclick='hideorshow("x887","x888")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x888' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-constraint">table-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x889' onclick='hideorshow("x889","x890")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x890' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-constraint" src="images/syntax/table-constraint.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x891' onclick='hideorshow("x891","x892")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x892' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram conflict-clause" src="images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x893' onclick='hideorshow("x893","x894")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x894' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x895' onclick='hideorshow("x895","x896")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x896' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x897' onclick='hideorshow("x897","x898")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x898' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x899' onclick='hideorshow("x899","x900")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x900' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x901' onclick='hideorshow("x901","x902")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x902' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#foreign-key-clause">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x903' onclick='hideorshow("x903","x904")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x904' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram foreign-key-clause" src="images/syntax/foreign-key-clause.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#indexed-column">indexed-column:</a></b>
<button id='x905' onclick='hideorshow("x905","x906")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x906' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram indexed-column" src="images/syntax/indexed-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The "CREATE TABLE" command is used to create a new table in an SQLite 
database. A CREATE TABLE command specifies the following attributes of the
new table:

<ul>
  <li><p>The name of the new table.

  <li><p> The database in which the new table is created. Tables may be 
      created in the main database, the temp database, or in any attached
      database.

  <li><p> The name of each column in the table.

  <li><p> The declared type of each column in the table.

  <li><p> A default value or expression for each column in the table.

  <li><p> A default collation sequence to use with each column.

  <li><p> Optionally, a PRIMARY KEY for the table. Both single column and
       composite (multiple column) primary keys are supported.

  <li><p> A set of SQL constraints for each table. SQLite supports UNIQUE, NOT
       NULL, CHECK and FOREIGN KEY constraints.

  <li><p> Whether the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table.
</ul>



<p>Every CREATE TABLE statement must specify a name for the new table.
  Table names that begin with "sqlite_" are reserved for internal use. It
  is an error to attempt to create a table with a name that starts with
  "sqlite_".



<p> If a &lt;database-name&gt; is specified, it must be either "main", 
  "temp", or the name of an <a href="lang_attach.html">attached database</a>. In this case
  the new table is created in the named database. If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY"
  keyword occurs between the "CREATE" and "TABLE" then the new table is
  created in the temp database. It is an error to specify both a 
  &lt;database-name&gt; and the TEMP or TEMPORARY keyword, unless the
  &lt;database-name&gt; is "temp". If no database name is specified and the
  TEMP keyword is not present then the table is created in the main
  database.

<p>
  It is usually an error to attempt to create a new table in a database that
  already contains a table, index or view of the same name. However, if the
  "IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified as part of the CREATE TABLE statement and
  a table or view of the same name already exists, the CREATE TABLE command
  simply has no effect (and no error message is returned). An error is still
  returned if the table cannot be created because of an existing index, even 
  if the "IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified.

<p>It is not an error to create a table that has the same name as an 
  existing <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">trigger</a>.

<p>Tables are removed using the <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> statement.  </p>

<h3>CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT Statements</h3>

<p>A "CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT" statement creates and populates a database
table based on the results of a SELECT statement. The table has the same
number of columns as the rows returned by the SELECT statement. The name of
each column is the same as the name of the corresponding column in the result
set of the SELECT statement. The declared type of each column is determined
by the <a href="datatype3.html#expraff">expression affinity</a> of the corresponding expression in the result set
of the SELECT statement, as follows:
</p>

<center><table border=1>
  <tr><th>Expression Affinity   <th>Column Declared Type
  <tr><td>TEXT                  <td>"TEXT"
  <tr><td>NUMERIC               <td>"NUM"
  <tr><td>INTEGER               <td>"INT"
  <tr><td>REAL                  <td>"REAL"
  <tr><td>NONE                  <td>"" (empty string)
</table></center>

<p>A table created using CREATE TABLE AS has no PRIMARY KEY and no
constraints of any kind. The default value of each column is NULL. The default
collation sequence for each column of the new table is BINARY.

<p>Tables created using CREATE TABLE AS are initially populated with the
rows of data returned by the SELECT statement. Rows are assigned contiguously
ascending <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">rowid</a> values, starting with 1, in the <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">order</a> that they
are returned by the SELECT statement.

<a name="tablecoldef"></a>

<h3>Column Definitions</h3>

<p>Unless it is a CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT statement, a CREATE TABLE includes
one or more <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-def">column definitions</a>, optionally followed by a list of
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-constraint">table constraints</a>.  Each column definition consists of the
name of the column, optionally followed by the declared type of the column,
then one or more optional <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#column-constraint">column constraints</a>. Included in
the definition of "column constraints" for the purposes of the previous
statement are the COLLATE and DEFAULT clauses, even though these are not really
constraints in the sense that they do not restrict the data that the table may
contain. The other constraints - NOT NULL, CHECK, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY and
FOREIGN KEY constraints - impose restrictions on the tables data, and are are
described under <a href="lang_createtable.html#constraints">SQL Data Constraints</a> below.

<p>Unlike most SQL databases, SQLite does not restrict the type of data that
may be inserted into a column based on the columns declared type. Instead,
SQLite uses <a href="datatype3.html">dynamic typing</a>. The declared type of a column is used to
determine the <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> of the column only.

<p>The DEFAULT clause specifies a default value to use for the column if no
value is explicitly provided by the user when doing an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>. If there
is no explicit DEFAULT clause attached to a column definition, then the 
default value of the column is NULL. An explicit DEFAULT clause may specify
that the default value is NULL, a string constant, a blob constant, a
signed-number, or any constant expression enclosed in parentheses. An explicit
default value may also be one of the special case-independent keywords
CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP. For the purposes of the
DEFAULT clause, an expression is considered constant provided that it does
not contain any sub-queries or string constants enclosed in double quotes.

<p>Each time a row is inserted into the table by an INSERT statement that 
does not provide explicit values for all table columns the values stored in
the new row are determined by their default values, as follows:

<ul>
  <li><p>If the default value of the column is a constant NULL, text, blob or
    signed-number value, then that value is used directly in the new row.

  <li><p>If the default value of a column is an expression in parentheses, then
    the expression is evaluated once for each row inserted and the results
    used in the new row.

  <li><p>If the default value of a column is CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or
    CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, then the value used in the new row is a text
    representation of the current UTC date and/or time. For CURRENT_TIME, the
    format of the value is "HH:MM:SS". For CURRENT_DATE, "YYYY-MM-DD". The
    format for CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is "YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS".
</ul>

<p>The COLLATE clause specifies the name of a <a href="datatype3.html#collation">collating sequence</a> to use as
the default collation sequence for the column. If no COLLATE clause is
specified, the default collation sequence is <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a>.

<p>The number of columns in a table is limited by the <a href="limits.html#max_column">SQLITE_MAX_COLUMN</a>
compile-time parameter. A single row of a table cannot store more than
<a href="limits.html#max_length">SQLITE_MAX_LENGTH</a> bytes of data. Both of these limits can be lowered at
runtime using the <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit()</a> C/C++ interface.</p>

<a name="constraints"></a>

<h3>SQL Data Constraints</h3>

<a name="primkeyconst"></a>


<p>Each table in SQLite may have at most one <b>PRIMARY KEY</b>. If the
  keywords PRIMARY KEY are added to a column definition, then the primary key
  for the table consists of that single column. Or, if a PRIMARY KEY clause 
  is specified as a <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-constraint">table-constraint</a>, then the primary key of the table
  consists of the list of columns specified as part of the PRIMARY KEY clause.
  An error is raised if more than one PRIMARY KEY clause appears in a
  CREATE TABLE statement.  The PRIMARY KEY is optional for ordinary tables
  but is required for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.


<p>If a table has a single column primary key and the declared type of that
  column is "INTEGER" and the table is not a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table,
  then the column is known as an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.
  See below for a description of the special properties and behaviors
  associated with an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.

<p>Each row in a table with a primary key must have a unique combination
  of values in its primary key columns. For the purposes of determining
  the uniqueness of primary key values, NULL values are considered distinct from
  all other values, including other NULLs. If an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>
  statement attempts to modify the table content so that two or more rows
  feature identical primary key values, it is a constraint violation.
  According to the SQL standard, PRIMARY KEY should always imply NOT NULL.
  Unfortunately, due to a bug in some early versions, this is not the
  case in SQLite. Unless the column is an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> or
  the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table or the column is declared NOT NULL,
  SQLite allows NULL values in a PRIMARY KEY column.  SQLite could be fixed to
  conform to the standard, but doing so might break legacy applications.
  Hence, it has been decided to merely document the fact that SQLite
  allowing NULLs in most PRIMARY KEY columns.

<a name="uniqueconst"></a>

<p>A <b>UNIQUE</b> constraint is similar to a PRIMARY KEY constraint, except
  that a single table may have any number of UNIQUE constraints. For each
  UNIQUE constraint on the table, each row must contain a unique combination
  of values in the columns identified by the UNIQUE constraint. 
  For the purposes of UNIQUE constraints, NULL values
  are considered distinct from all other values, including other NULLs.


<p>In most cases, UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY
  constraints are implemented by creating a unique index in the database.
  (The exceptions are <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> and PRIMARY KEYs on 
  <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.)
  Hence, the following schemas are logically equivalent:


  <ol>




  <li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b UNIQUE);
  <li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b PRIMARY KEY);
  <li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b);<br>
         CREATE UNIQUE INDEX t1b ON t1(b);
  </ol>

<a name="ckconst"></a>

<p>A <b>CHECK</b> constraint may be attached to a column definition or
  specified as a table constraint. In practice it makes no difference. Each
  time a new row is inserted into the table or an existing row is updated,
  the expression associated with each CHECK constraint is evaluated and
  cast to a NUMERIC value in the same way as a <a href="lang_expr.html#castexpr">CAST expression</a>. If the 
  result is zero (integer value 0 or real value 0.0), then a constraint
  violation has occurred. If the CHECK expression evaluates to NULL, or
  any other non-zero value, it is not a constraint violation.
  The expression of a CHECK constraint may not contain a subquery.

<p>CHECK constraints have been supported since <a href="releaselog/3_3_0.html">version 3.3.0</a>. Prior to
  version 3.3.0, CHECK constraints were parsed but not enforced.

<a name="notnullconst"></a>

<p>A <b>NOT NULL</b> constraint may only be attached to a column definition,
  not specified as a table constraint.  Not surprisingly, a NOT NULL
  constraint dictates that the associated column may not contain a NULL value.
  Attempting to set the column value to NULL when inserting a new row or
  updating an existing one causes a constraint violation.

<p>Exactly how a constraint violation is dealt with is determined by the
  <a href="lang_conflict.html">constraint conflict resolution algorithm</a>. Each 
  PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK constraint has a default conflict
  resolution algorithm. PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints may be
  explicitly assigned a default conflict resolution algorithm by including
  a <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause</a> in their definitions. Or, if a constraint definition
  does not include a <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#conflict-clause">conflict-clause</a> or it is a CHECK constraint, the default
  conflict resolution algorithm is ABORT. Different constraints within the
  same table may have different default conflict resolution algorithms. See
  the section titled <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.

<a name="rowid"></a>

<h3>ROWIDs and the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</h3>

<p>Except for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables, all rows within SQLite tables
have a 64-bit signed integer key that uniquely identifies the row within its table.

This integer is usually
called the "rowid". The rowid value can be accessed using one of the special
case-independent names "rowid", "oid", or "_rowid_" in place of a column name.
If a table contains a user defined column named "rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_",
then that name always refers the explicitly declared column and cannot be used
to retrieve the integer rowid value.

<p>The rowid (and "oid" and "_rowid_") is omitted in <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.
WITHOUT ROWID tables are only available in SQLite <a href="releaselog/3_8_2.html">version 3.8.2</a> and later.
A table that lacks the WITHOUT ROWID clause is called a "rowid table".

<p>The data for rowid tables is stored as a B-Tree structure containing
one entry for each table row, using the rowid value as the key. This means that
retrieving or sorting records by rowid is fast. Searching for a record with a
specific rowid, or for all records with rowids within a specified range is
around twice as fast as a similar search made by specifying any other PRIMARY
KEY or indexed value.

<p> With one exception noted below, if a rowid table has a primary key that consists
of a single column and the declared type of that column is "INTEGER" in any mixture of
upper and lower case, then the column becomes an alias for the rowid. Such a
column is usually referred to as an "integer primary key". A PRIMARY KEY column
only becomes an integer primary key if the declared type name is exactly
"INTEGER".  Other integer type names like "INT" or "BIGINT" or "SHORT INTEGER"
or "UNSIGNED INTEGER" causes the primary key column to behave as an ordinary
table column with integer <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> and a unique index, not as an alias for
the rowid.

<p> The exception mentioned above is that if the declaration of a column with
declared type "INTEGER" includes an "PRIMARY KEY DESC" clause, it does not
become an alias for the rowid and is not classified as an integer primary key.
This quirk is not by design. It is due to a bug in early versions of SQLite.
But fixing the bug could result in backwards incompatibilities.
Hence, the original behavior has been retained (and documented) because
behavior in a corner case is far better than a compatibility break.  This means
that the following three table declarations all cause the column "x" to be an
alias for the rowid (an integer primary key):

<ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ASC, y, z);</tt>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x ASC));</tt>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x DESC));</tt>
</ul>



<p>But the following declaration does not result in "x" being an alias for
the rowid:
<ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY DESC, y, z);</tt>
</ul>

<p>Rowid values may be modified using an UPDATE statement in the same
way as any other column value can, either using one of the built-in aliases
("rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_") or by using an alias created by an integer
primary key. Similarly, an INSERT statement may provide a value to use as the
rowid for each row inserted. Unlike normal SQLite columns, an integer primary
key or rowid column must contain integer values. Integer primary key or rowid
columns are not able to hold floating point values, strings, BLOBs, or NULLs.

<p>If an UPDATE statement attempts to set an integer primary key or rowid column
to a NULL or blob value, or to a string or real value that cannot be losslessly
converted to an integer, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the statement
is aborted. If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a blob value, or a string
or real value that cannot be losslessly converted to an integer into an
integer primary key or rowid column, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the
statement is aborted.

<p>If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a NULL value into a rowid or
integer primary key column, the system chooses an integer value to use as the
rowid automatically. A detailed description of how this is done is provided
<a href="autoinc.html">separately</a>.</p>

<p>The <a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">parent key</a> of a <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> is not allowed to
use the rowid.  The parent key must used named columns only.</p>
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">CREATE TRIGGER</span>&nbsp;</td>

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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        CREATE TRIGGER</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TEMP </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> TEMPORARY</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                TRIGGER </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> BEFORE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  AFTER </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-event</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">














                    ON </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
              </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-action</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>

              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TEMP </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> TEMPORARY</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                TRIGGER </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  INSTEAD OF<br />
                </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-event</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  ON </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">view-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
              </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-action</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>













          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">database-event</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DELETE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                <br />
                INSERT </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <br />
                  UPDATE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    <br />
                    UPDATE OF </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>


          </tr>








        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">




          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-action</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> FOR EACH ROW </font>
              </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> FOR EACH STATEMENT </font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> WHEN </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">

                  expression</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    <br />
                    BEGIN

                    <br />
                    &nbsp; &nbsp; </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-step</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"> ; </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                        trigger-step</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> ; </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font
                          color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          END</font></b></td>




          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-step</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">update-statement</font></i><b><font

                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font
                  color="#ff3434">insert-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                <br />
              </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">delete-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
              </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>









          </tr>
        </table>

      </p>
      <p>
        The CREATE TRIGGER statement is used to add triggers to the database schema. Triggers
        are database operations (the <i>trigger-action</i>) that are automatically performed
        when a specified database event (the <i>database-event</i>) occurs.
      </p>
      <p>
        A trigger may be specified to fire whenever a DELETE, INSERT or UPDATE of a particular

        database table occurs, or whenever an UPDATE of one or more specified columns of
        a table are updated.</p>
      <p>
        At this time SQLite supports only FOR EACH ROW triggers, not FOR EACH STATEMENT
        triggers. Hence explicitly specifying FOR EACH ROW is optional. FOR EACH ROW implies
        that the SQL statements specified as <i>trigger-steps</i> may be executed (depending
        on the WHEN clause) for each database row being inserted, updated or deleted by
        the statement causing the trigger to fire.</p>
      <p>
        Both the WHEN clause and the <i>trigger-steps</i> may access elements of the row
        being inserted, deleted or updated using references of the form "NEW.<i>column-name</i>"

        and "OLD.<i>column-name</i>", where <i>column-name</i> is the name of a column from the table that the trigger is associated with. OLD and NEW references may only be

        used in triggers on <i>trigger-event</i>s for which they are relevant, as follows:</p>
      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" valign="top" width="120">
              <i>INSERT</i></td>
            <td valign="top">
              NEW references are valid</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" valign="top" width="120">
              <i>UPDATE</i></td>
            <td valign="top">
              NEW and OLD references are valid</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>





            <td align="right" valign="top" width="120">





















              <i>DELETE</i></td>

            <td valign="top">


              OLD references are valid</td>



          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>





      </p>

      <p>
        If a WHEN clause is supplied, the SQL statements specified as <i>trigger-steps</i>

        are only executed for

        rows for which the WHEN clause is true. If no WHEN clause
        is supplied, the SQL statements are executed for all rows.</p>
      <p>
        The specified <i>trigger-time</i> determines when the <i>trigger-steps</i> will
        be executed relative to the insertion, modification or removal of the associated


        row.</p>

      <p>
        An ON CONFLICT clause may be specified as part of an UPDATE or INSERT <i>trigger-step</i>.


        However if an ON CONFLICT clause is specified as part of the statement causing the
        trigger to fire, then this conflict handling policy is used instead.</p>


      <p>

        Triggers are automatically dropped when the table that they are associated with

        is dropped.</p>

      <p>
        Triggers may be created on views, as well as ordinary tables, by specifying INSTEAD

        OF in the CREATE TRIGGER statement. If one or more ON INSERT, ON DELETE or ON UPDATE
        triggers are defined on a view, then it is not an error to execute an INSERT, DELETE
        or UPDATE statement on the view, respectively. Thereafter, executing an INSERT,

        DELETE or UPDATE on the view causes the associated triggers to fire. The real tables

        underlying the view are not modified (except possibly explicitly, by a trigger program).</p>
      <p>




        <b>Example:</b></p>
      <p>
        Assuming that customer records are stored in the "customers" table, and that order
        records are stored in the "orders" table, the following trigger ensures that all
        associated orders are redirected when a customer changes his or her address:</p>


      <blockquote>
        <pre>
CREATE TRIGGER update_customer_address UPDATE OF address ON customers 
  BEGIN
    UPDATE orders SET address = new.address WHERE customer_name = old.name;
  END;
</pre>
      </blockquote>
      <p>
        With this trigger installed, executing the statement:</p>

      <blockquote>
        <pre>
UPDATE customers SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE name = 'Jack Jones';
</pre>
      </blockquote>
      <p>
        causes the following to be automatically executed:</p>

      <blockquote>
        <pre>
UPDATE orders SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE customer_name = 'Jack Jones';
</pre>
      </blockquote>

      <p>

        Note that currently, triggers may behave oddly when created on tables with INTEGER


        PRIMARY KEY fields. If a BEFORE trigger program modifies the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY



        field of a row that will be subsequently updated by the statement that causes the


        trigger to fire, then the update may not occur. The workaround is to declare the


        table with a PRIMARY KEY column instead of an INTEGER PRIMARY KEY column.</p>

      <p>
        A special SQL function RAISE() may be used within a trigger-program, with the following
        syntax</p>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">raise-function</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">RAISE <big>(</big> ABORT<big>,</big> </font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">error-message</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font>
                </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <br />
                  RAISE <big>(</big> FAIL<big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">error-message</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                      <br />
                      RAISE <big>(</big> ROLLBACK<big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">error-message</font></i><b><font
                        color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          <br />
                          RAISE <big>(</big> IGNORE <big>)</big></font></b></td>

          </tr>
        </table>




      </p>
      <p>
        When one of the first three forms is called during trigger-program execution, the
        specified ON CONFLICT processing is performed (either ABORT, FAIL or ROLLBACK) and
        the current query terminates. An error code of SQLITE_CONSTRAINT is returned to
        the user, along with the specified error message.</p>
      <p>
        When RAISE(IGNORE) is called, the remainder of the current trigger program, the
        statement that caused the trigger program to execute and any subsequent trigger
        programs that would of been executed are abandoned. No database changes are rolled
        back. If the statement that caused the trigger program to execute is itself part
        of a trigger program, then that trigger program resumes execution at the beginning
        of the next step.
      </p>
      <p>
        Triggers are removed using the <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a>
        statement.</p>
      <p>

      <hr>






        &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>CREATE TRIGGER</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt:</a></b>

<button id='x907' onclick='hideorshow("x907","x908")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x908'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram create-trigger-stmt" src="images/syntax/create-trigger-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#delete-stmt">delete-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x909' onclick='hideorshow("x909","x910")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x910' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram delete-stmt" src="images/syntax/delete-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x911' onclick='hideorshow("x911","x912")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x912' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram qualified-table-name" src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x913' onclick='hideorshow("x913","x914")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x914' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x915' onclick='hideorshow("x915","x916")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x916' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x917' onclick='hideorshow("x917","x918")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x918' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x919' onclick='hideorshow("x919","x920")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x920' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x921' onclick='hideorshow("x921","x922")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x922' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x923' onclick='hideorshow("x923","x924")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x924' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x925' onclick='hideorshow("x925","x926")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x926' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#insert-stmt">insert-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x927' onclick='hideorshow("x927","x928")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x928' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram insert-stmt" src="images/syntax/insert-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x929' onclick='hideorshow("x929","x930")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x930' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x931' onclick='hideorshow("x931","x932")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x932' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x933' onclick='hideorshow("x933","x934")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x934' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x935' onclick='hideorshow("x935","x936")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x936' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x937' onclick='hideorshow("x937","x938")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x938' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x939' onclick='hideorshow("x939","x940")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x940' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x941' onclick='hideorshow("x941","x942")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x942' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x943' onclick='hideorshow("x943","x944")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x944' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>


</blockquote>



<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x945' onclick='hideorshow("x945","x946")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x946' style='display:none;'>

 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x947' onclick='hideorshow("x947","x948")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x948' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x949' onclick='hideorshow("x949","x950")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x950' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>





<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#update-stmt">update-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x951' onclick='hideorshow("x951","x952")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x952' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram update-stmt" src="images/syntax/update-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x953' onclick='hideorshow("x953","x954")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x954' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram qualified-table-name" src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x955' onclick='hideorshow("x955","x956")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x956' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x957' onclick='hideorshow("x957","x958")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x958' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The CREATE TRIGGER statement is used to add triggers to the 
database schema. Triggers are database operations 
that are automatically performed when a specified database event
occurs.  </p>

<p>A trigger may be specified to fire whenever a <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>,
or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> of a
particular database table occurs, or whenever an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> occurs on
on one or more specified columns of a table.</p>

<p>At this time SQLite supports only FOR EACH ROW triggers, not FOR EACH
STATEMENT triggers. Hence explicitly specifying FOR EACH ROW is optional.
FOR EACH ROW implies that the SQL statements specified in the trigger
may be executed (depending on the WHEN clause) for each database row being
inserted, updated or deleted by the statement causing the trigger to fire.</p>

<p>Both the WHEN clause and the trigger actions may access elements of 
the row being inserted, deleted or updated using references of the form 
"NEW.<i>column-name</i>" and "OLD.<i>column-name</i>", where
<i>column-name</i> is the name of a column from the table that the trigger
is associated with. OLD and NEW references may only be used in triggers on
events for which they are relevant, as follows:</p>

<table border=0 cellpadding=10>
<tr>


<td valign="top" align="right" width=120><i>INSERT</i></td>
<td valign="top">NEW references are valid</td>
</tr>
<tr>


<td valign="top" align="right" width=120><i>UPDATE</i></td>
<td valign="top">NEW and OLD references are valid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="right" width=120><i>DELETE</i></td>
<td valign="top">OLD references are valid</td>
</tr>
</table>
</p>

<p>If a WHEN clause is supplied, the SQL statements specified
are only executed for rows for which the WHEN
clause is true. If no WHEN clause is supplied, the SQL statements
are executed for all rows.</p>

<p>The BEFORE or AFTER keyword determines when the trigger actions
will be executed relative to the insertion, modification or removal of the
associated row.</p>

<p>An <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> clause may be specified as part of an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> or <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
action within the body of the trigger.
However if an <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> clause is specified as part of 
the statement causing the trigger to fire, then conflict handling
policy of the outer statement is used instead.</p>

<p>Triggers are automatically <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">dropped</a>
when the table that they are 
associated with (the <i>table-name</i> table) is 
<a href="lang_droptable.html">dropped</a>.  However if the trigger actions reference
other tables, the trigger is not dropped or modified if those other
tables are <a href="lang_droptable.html">dropped</a> or <a href="lang_altertable.html">modified</a>.</p>

<p>Triggers are removed using the <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a> statement.</p>

<h3>Syntax Restrictions On UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT Statements Within
    Triggers</h3>

<p>The <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, and <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
statements within triggers do not support
the full syntax for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, and <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> statements.  The following
restrictions apply:</p>

<ul>
<li><p>
  The name of the table to be modified in an <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, or <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>
  statement must be an unqualified table name.  In other words, one must
  use just "<i>tablename</i>" not "<i>database</i><b>.</b><i>tablename</i>"
  when specifying the table.  The table to be modified must exist in the
  same database as the table or view to which the trigger is attached.
  </p></li>

<li><p>

  The "INSERT INTO <i>table</i> DEFAULT VALUES" form of the <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> statement
  is not supported.
  </p></li>


<li><p>


  The INDEXED BY and NOT INDEXED clauses are not supported for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and
  <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements.
  </p></li>

<li><p>

  The ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses on <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements are not
  supported.  ORDER BY and LIMIT are not normally supported for <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> or
  <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> in any context but can be enabled for top-level statements
  using the <a href="compile.html#enable_update_delete_limit">SQLITE_ENABLE_UPDATE_DELETE_LIMIT</a> compile-time option.  However,
  that compile-time option only applies to top-level <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>
  statements, not <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements within triggers.
  </p></li>
</ul>

<a name="instead_of_trigger"></a>

<h3>INSTEAD OF trigger</h3>

<p>Triggers may be created on <a href="lang_createview.html">views</a>, as well as ordinary tables, by
specifying INSTEAD OF in the CREATE TRIGGER statement. 
If one or more ON INSERT, ON DELETE
or ON UPDATE triggers are defined on a view, then it is not an
error to execute an INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE statement on the view, 
respectively.  Instead,
executing an INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE on the view causes the associated
triggers to fire. The real tables underlying the view are not modified
(except possibly explicitly, by a trigger program).</p>

<p>Note that the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a> and <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a> interfaces
do not count INSTEAD OF trigger firings, but the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_count_changes">count_changes pragma</a> does count INSTEAD OF trigger firing.</p>

<h3>Examples</h3>

<p>Assuming that customer records are stored in the "customers" table, and
that order records are stored in the "orders" table, the following trigger
ensures that all associated orders are redirected when a customer changes
his or her address:</p>

<blockquote><pre>

CREATE TRIGGER update_customer_address UPDATE OF address ON customers 
  BEGIN
    UPDATE orders SET address = new.address WHERE customer_name = old.name;
  END;

</pre></blockquote>

<p>With this trigger installed, executing the statement:</p>

<blockquote><pre>

UPDATE customers SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE name = 'Jack Jones';

</pre></blockquote>

<p>causes the following to be automatically executed:</p>

<blockquote><pre>

UPDATE orders SET address = '1 Main St.' WHERE customer_name = 'Jack Jones';
</pre></blockquote>

<a name="undef_before"></a>

<h3>Cautions On The Use Of BEFORE triggers</h3>

<p>If a BEFORE UPDATE or BEFORE DELETE trigger modifies or deletes a row
that was to have been updated or deleted, then the result of the subsequent
update or delete operation is undefined.  Furthermore, if a BEFORE trigger
modifies or deletes a row, then it is undefined whether or not AFTER triggers
that would have otherwise run on those rows will in fact run.
</p>

<p>The value of NEW.rowid is undefined in a BEFORE INSERT trigger in which
the rowid is not explicitly set to an integer.</p>

<p>Because of the behaviors described above, programmers are encouraged to
prefer AFTER triggers over BEFORE triggers.</p>

<h3>The RAISE() function</h3>

<p>A special SQL function RAISE() may be used within a trigger-program,
with the following syntax</p> 




<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>











<p>When one of RAISE(ROLLBACK,...), RAISE(ABORT,...) or RAISE(FAIL,...)
is called during trigger-program

execution, the specified <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> processing is performed
the current query terminates.
An error code of <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_CONSTRAINT</a> is returned to the application,
along with the specified error message.</p>







<p>When RAISE(IGNORE) is called, the remainder of the current trigger program,
the statement that caused the trigger program to execute and any subsequent
trigger programs that would have been executed are abandoned. No database
changes are rolled back.  If the statement that caused the trigger program
to execute is itself part of a trigger program, then that trigger program
resumes execution at the beginning of the next step.
</p>


<a name="temptrig"></a>

<h3>TEMP Triggers on Non-TEMP Tables</h3>

<p>A trigger normally exists in the same database as the table named
after the "ON" keyword in the CREATE TRIGGER statement.  Except, it is
possible to create a TEMP TRIGGER on a table in another database.  
Such a trigger will only fire when changes
are made to the target table by the application that defined the trigger.
Other applications that modify the database will not be able to see the
TEMP trigger and hence cannot run the trigger.</p>

<p>When defining a TEMP trigger on a non-TEMP table, it is important to
specify the database holding the non-TEMP table.  For example,
in the following statement, it is important to say "main.tab1" instead
of just "tab1":</p>

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TEMP TRIGGER ex1 AFTER INSERT ON <b>main.</b>tab1 BEGIN ...
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Failure to specify the database name on the target table could result
in the TEMP trigger being reattached to a table with the same name in
another database whenever any schema change occurs.</p>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        CREATE VIEW</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TEMP </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> TEMPORARY</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                VIEW </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"><big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">view-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> AS </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
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      </p>








      <p>





        The CREATE VIEW command assigns a name to a pre-packaged <a href="lang_select.html">
          SELECT</a> statement. Once the view is created, it can be used in the FROM clause
        of another SELECT in place of a table name. 







      </p>
      <p>
        If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY" keyword occurs in between "CREATE" and "VIEW" then
        the view that is created is only visible to the process that opened the database
        and is automatically deleted when the database is closed.</p>

      <p>
        If a &lt;database-name&gt; is specified, then the view is created in the named database.
        It is an error to specify both a &lt;database-name&gt; and the TEMP keyword, unless
        the &lt;database-name&gt; is "temp". If no database name is specified, and the TEMP
        keyword is not present, the table is created in the main database.</p>



      <p>
        You cannot COPY, DELETE, INSERT or UPDATE a view. Views are read-only in SQLite.
        However, in many cases you can use a <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">TRIGGER</a>
        on the view to accomplish the same thing. Views are removed with the <a href="lang_dropview.html">



          DROP VIEW</a> command.</p>
      <p>




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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>CREATE VIEW</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#create-view-stmt">create-view-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x959' onclick='hideorshow("x959","x960")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x960'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram create-view-stmt" src="images/syntax/create-view-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x961' onclick='hideorshow("x961","x962")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x962' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x963' onclick='hideorshow("x963","x964")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x964' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x965' onclick='hideorshow("x965","x966")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x966' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x967' onclick='hideorshow("x967","x968")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x968' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x969' onclick='hideorshow("x969","x970")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x970' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x971' onclick='hideorshow("x971","x972")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x972' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>


<button id='x973' onclick='hideorshow("x973","x974")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x974' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x975' onclick='hideorshow("x975","x976")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x976' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>



</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x977' onclick='hideorshow("x977","x978")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x978' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x979' onclick='hideorshow("x979","x980")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x980' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>

<button id='x981' onclick='hideorshow("x981","x982")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x982' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x983' onclick='hideorshow("x983","x984")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x984' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x985' onclick='hideorshow("x985","x986")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x986' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x987' onclick='hideorshow("x987","x988")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x988' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The CREATE VIEW command assigns a name to a pre-packaged 
<a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statement. 
Once the view is created, it can be used in the FROM clause
of another <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> in place of a table name.
</p>

<p>If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY" keyword occurs in between "CREATE"
and "VIEW" then the view that is created is only visible to the
process that opened the database and is automatically deleted when
the database is closed.</p>

<p> If a &lt;database-name&gt; is specified, then the view is created in 
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the same thing.  Views are removed 
with the <a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a> command.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createvtab.html. 
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        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>


      <h4>
        CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</h4>

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              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>























            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
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              <i><font color="#ff3434">arguments</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font
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      <p>









        A virtual table is an interface to an external storage or computation engine that
        appears to be a table but does not actually store information in the database file.</p>

      <p>
        In general, you can do anything with a virtual table that can be done with an ordinary
        table, except that you cannot create triggers on a virtual table. Some virtual table
        implementations might impose additional restrictions. For example, many virtual
        tables are read-only.</p>
      <p>
        The &lt;module-name&gt; is the
        name of an object that implements the virtual table.
        The &lt;module-name&gt; must be registered with the SQLite database connection using
        <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_create_module">sqlite3_create_module</a> prior to
        issuing the CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE statement. The module takes zero or more comma-separated
        arguments. The arguments can be just about any text as long as it has balanced parentheses.
        The argument syntax is sufficiently general that the arguments can be made to appear
        as column definitions in a traditional <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a>











        statement. SQLite passes the module arguments directly to the module without any

        interpretation. It is the responsibility of the module implementation to parse and
        interpret its own arguments.</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#create-virtual-table-stmt">create-virtual-table-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x989' onclick='hideorshow("x989","x990")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x990'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram create-virtual-table-stmt" src="images/syntax/create-virtual-table-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>A <a href="vtab.html">virtual table</a> is an interface to an external storage or computation
engine that appears to be a table but does not actually store information
in the database file.</p>

<p>In general, you can do anything with a <a href="vtab.html">virtual table</a> that can be done
with an ordinary table, except that you cannot create indices or triggers on a
virtual table.  Some virtual table implementations might impose additional
restrictions.  For example, many virtual tables are read-only.</p>










<p>The &lt;module-name&gt; is the name of an object that implements
the virtual table.  The &lt;module-name&gt; must be registered with
the SQLite database connection using
<a href="c3ref/create_module.html">sqlite3_create_module()</a> or <a href="c3ref/create_module.html">sqlite3_create_module_v2()</a>
prior to issuing the CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE statement.
The module takes zero or more comma-separated arguments.
The arguments can be just about any text as long as it has balanced
parentheses.  The argument syntax is sufficiently general that the
arguments can be made to appear as <a href="lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef">column definitions</a> in a traditional
<a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> statement.  
SQLite passes the module arguments directly
to the <a href="vtab.html#xcreate">xCreate</a> and <a href="vtab.html#xconnect">xConnect</a> methods of the module implementation
without any interpretation.  It is the responsibility
of the module implementation to parse and interpret its own arguments.</p>

<p>A virtual table is destroyed using the ordinary
<a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> statement.  There is no
DROP VIRTUAL TABLE statement.</p>
Name change from Doc/Extra/Core/lang_datetime.html to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_datefunc.html. 
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">Date and Time Functions</span>&nbsp;</td>
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      <h1 class="heading">Date and Time Functions</h1>
<p>Five date and time functions are available, as follows:

















<p><ol>
<li>date( <i>timestring</i>, <i>modifier</i>, <i>modifier</i>, ...)
<li>time( <i>timestring</i>, <i>modifier</i>, <i>modifier</i>, ...)
<li>datetime( <i>timestring</i>, <i>modifier</i>, <i>modifier</i>, ...)
<li>julianday( <i>timestring</i>, <i>modifier</i>, <i>modifier</i>, ...)
<li>strftime( <i>format</i>, <i>timestring</i>, <i>modifier</i>, <i>modifier</i>, ...)
</ol>

<p>All five functions take a time string as an argument.  This
time string may be followed by zero or more modifiers.  The
<b>strftime()</b> function also takes a format string as its first
argument.



<p>The <b>date()</b> function returns the date in this format: YYYY-MM-DD.
The <b>time()</b> function returns the time as HH:MM:SS.  The <b>datetime()</b>
function returns &quot;YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS&quot;.  The <b>julianday()</b> function
returns the number of days since noon in Greenwich on November 24, 4714 B.C.
The julian day number is the preferred internal representation of
dates.  The <b>strftime()</b> routine returns the date formatted according
to the format string specified as the first argument.  The format string
supports most, but not all, of the more common substitutions found in


the strftime() function from the standard C library:



















<p><pre>
   %d  day of month
   %f  ** fractional seconds  SS.SSS
   %H  hour 00-24
   %j  day of year 001-366
   %J  ** Julian day number
   %m  month 01-12
   %M  minute 00-59
   %s  seconds since 1970-01-01
   %S  seconds 00-59
   %w  day of week 0-6  sunday==0
   %W  week of year 00-53
   %Y  year 0000-9999
   %%  %
</pre>





<p>The %f and %J conversions are new.  Notice that all of the other four
functions could be expressed in terms of <b>strftime()</b>.






<p><pre>
   date(...)      -&gt;  strftime(&quot;%Y-%m-%d&quot;, ...)
   time(...)      -&gt;  strftime(&quot;%H:%M:%S&quot;, ...)
   datetime(...)  -&gt;  strftime(&quot;%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S&quot;, ...)
   julianday(...) -&gt;  strftime(&quot;%J&quot;, ...)
</pre>

<p>The only reasons for providing functions other than <b>strftime()</b> is for






convenience and for efficiency.



<p><b>Time Strings</b>


<p>A time string can be in any of the following formats:


<p><ol>

<li>YYYY-MM-DD
<li>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM
<li>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
<li>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS.SSS
<li>YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM
<li>YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS
<li>YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.SSS
<li>HH:MM
<li>HH:MM:SS
<li>HH:MM:SS.SSS
<li>now
<li>DDDD.DDDD
</ol>



<p>In formats 5 through 7, the &quot;T&quot; is a literal character separating the date and the time, as required by the ISO-8601 standard. These formats are supported in SQLite 3.2.0 and later.


Formats 8 through 10 that specify only a time assume a date of 2000-01-01.

Format 11, the string 'now', is converted into the current date and time.
Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) is used.





Format 12 is the julian day number expressed as a floating point value.

<p><b>Modifiers</b>

<p>The time string can be followed by zero or more modifiers that alter the
date or alter the interpretation of the date.  The available modifiers
are as follows.

<p><ol>
<li>NNN days
<li>NNN hours
<li>NNN minutes
<li>NNN.NNNN seconds
<li>NNN months  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>
 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>
)
<li>NNN years  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>
 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>



)
<li>start of month


<li>start of year





<li>start of week  (withdrawn -- will not be implemented)
<li>start of day
<li>weekday N  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>
 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>
)
<li>unixepoch
<li>localtime
<li>utc
</ol>








<p>The first six modifiers (1 through 6) simply add the specified amount









of time to the date specified by the preceding timestring.





<p>The &quot;start of&quot; modifiers (7 through 10) shift the date backwards to
the beginning of the current month, year or day.


<p>The &quot;weekday&quot; modifier advances the date forward to the next date where
the weekday number is N.  Sunday is 0, Monday is 1, and so forth.


<p>The &quot;unixepoch&quot; modifier (12) only works if it immediately follows
a timestring in the DDDDDDDDDD format.  This modifier causes the DDDDDDDDDD
to be interpreted not as a julian day number as it normally would be, but
as the number of seconds since 1970.  This modifier allows unix-based times
to be converted to julian day numbers easily.

<p>The &quot;localtime&quot; modifier (13) adjusts the previous time string so that it
displays the correct local time.  &quot;utc&quot; undoes this.



<p><b>Examples</b>

<p>Compute the current date.


<p><pre>

  SELECT date('now');
</pre>



<p>Compute the last day of the current month.




<p><pre>
  SELECT date('now','start of month','+1 month','-1 day');

</pre>

<p>Compute the date and time given a unix timestamp 1092941466.

<p><pre>
  SELECT datetime(1092941466, 'unixepoch');
</pre>

<p>Compute the date and time given a unix timestamp 1092941466, and compensate for your local timezone.

<p><pre>
  SELECT datetime(1092941466, 'unixepoch', 'localtime');


</pre>




<p>Compute the current unix timestamp.



<p><pre>
  SELECT strftime('%s','now');
</pre>






<p>Compute the number of days since the battle of Hastings.

<p><pre>
  SELECT julianday('now') - julianday('1066-10-14','gregorian');
</pre>

<p>Compute the number of seconds between two dates:




<p><pre>
  SELECT julianday('now')*86400 - julianday('2004-01-01 02:34:56')*86400;
</pre>

<p>Compute the date of the first Tuesday in October (January + 9) for the current





year.

<p><pre>
  SELECT date('now','start of year','+9 months','weekday 2');





</pre>

<p><b>Caveats And Bugs</b>

<p>The computation of local time depends heavily on the whim of local
politicians and is thus difficult to get correct for all locales.  In
this implementation, the standard C library function localtime() is
used to assist in the calculation of local time.

Note that localtime() is not
threadsafe, so use of the &quot;localtime&quot; modifier is not threadsafe.
Also, the localtime() C function normally only works for years between
1970 and 2037.  For dates outside this range, SQLite attempts to
map the year into an equivalent year within this range, do the

calculation, then map the year back.

<p><i>Please surround uses of localtime() with sqliteOsEnterMutex() and sqliteOsLeaveMutex() so threads
using SQLite are protected, at least!
-- e</i>  It is so. --drh

<p><i>[Consider instead, using localtime_r which is reentrant and may be used
*without* expensive mutex locking. Although non-standard it's available
on most Unixes --hauk]</i> But it is not available on windows, as far as I
am aware. --drh On windows localtime() is thread-safe if the MT C runtime is used. The MT runtime uses thread-local storage for the static variables, the kind functions use.--gr <i>[What about using localtime_r, and on systems where it
is unavailable defining it as sqliteOsEnterMutext() ; locatime() ; sqliteOsLeaveMutex()
so that non-windows systems get the maximum advantage, with almost zero
code impact?]</i> The autoconfigury and patch for localtime_r is here: <font color="#a0a0a0">&curren;</font><a href="http://www.sqlite.org/cvstrac/tktview?tn=1906">http://www.sqlite.org/cvstrac/tktview?tn=1906</a> . I'm curious why this obvious fix is not applied. gmtime() also suffers from this same threadsafety problem.








<p>Date computations do not give correct results for dates before Julian
day number 0 (-4713-11-24 12:00:00).









<p>All internal computations assume the Gregorian calendar system.


<p><hr>
<i>An anonymous user adds:</i> <br>

For my use I added new functions and functionalities to the date functions that
come with the sqlite 3.3.0 (can be used in older versions as well with small effort).


<p>In main lines they are as follows:


<p><ol>
<li>NNN days
<li>NNN hours

<li>NNN minutes
<li>NNN.NNNN seconds
<li>NNN months  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>
 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>
)
<li>NNN years  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>
 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>
)

<li>start of month
<li>start of year
<li>start of week  (!!! implemented)
<li>start of day

<li>weekday N  (see <a href="tktview?tn=551">#551</a>



 and <a href="chngview?cn=1163">[1163]</a>

)
<li>unixepoch
<li>localtime
<li>utc
<li>julian  (not implemented as of 2004-01-05)


<li>gregorian  (not implemented as of 2004-01-05)
<li>start of minute


<li>start of hour
<li>end of minute
<li>end of hour
<li>end of day
<li>end of week
<li>end of month
<li>end of year
<li>group seconds by
<li>group minutes by
<li>group hours by
<li>group days by
<li>group weeks by
<li>group months by
<li>group years by
</ol>




<p>The &quot;start of&quot; modifiers (7 through 10 and 17 through 18) shift the date backwards to the beginning of the current minute, hour, week, month, year or day.






<p>The &quot;end of&quot; modifiers (19 through 24) shift the date forwards to

the end of the current minute, hour, week, month, year or day.










<p>The &quot;group * by&quot; modifiers (25 through 31) round the date to the closest backward multiple supplied, with some limitations, to the current seconds (1 through 30), minutes (1 through 30), hours (1 through 12), days (1 through 15), weeks (1 through 26), months (1 through 6), years (1 through 100), these limitations are due to dont complicate the calculations when a multiple can span beyound the unit modified.





<p>Ex:








<p>SELECT datetime('2006-02-04 20:09:23','group hours by 3'); =&gt; '2006-02-04 18:00:00'





<p>SELECT datetime('2006-02-05 20:09:23','group days by 3'); =&gt; '2006-02-04 00:00:00'

<p>New functions &quot;week_number(date)&quot; returns the week number of the year on the supplied date parameter, &quot;datetime2seconds(datetime)&quot; return the number of seconds from the supplied datetime parameter.
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>Date And Time Functions</h2>

<p>
SQLite supports five date and time functions as follows:
</p>


<p>
<ol>
<li> <b>date(</b><i>timestring, modifier, modifier, ...</i><b>)</b> </li>
<li> <b>time(</b><i>timestring, modifier, modifier, ...</i><b>)</b> </li>
<li> <b>datetime(</b><i>timestring, modifier, modifier, ...</i><b>)</b> </li>
<li> <b>julianday(</b><i>timestring, modifier, modifier, ...</i><b>)</b> </li>
<li> <b>strftime(</b><i>format, timestring, modifier, modifier, ...</i><b>)</b> </li>


</ol>

<p>
All five date and time functions take a time string as an argument. 
The time string is followed by zero or more modifiers. 
The strftime() function also takes a format string as its first argument.
</p>

<p>
The date and time functions use a subset of

<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601">IS0-8601</a> date and time
formats.
The date() function returns the date in this format: YYYY-MM-DD. 
The time() function returns the time as HH:MM:SS. 
The datetime() function returns "YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS". 
The julianday() function returns the 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_day">Julian day</a> - the
number of days since noon in Greenwich on November 24, 4714 B.C. 
(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar">Proleptic Gregorian calendar</a>).
The strftime() routine returns the date formatted according to 
the format string specified as the first argument.
The format string supports the most common substitutions found in the 
<a href="http://opengroup.org/onlinepubs/007908799/xsh/strftime.html">strftime() function</a>
from the standard C library plus two new substitutions, %f and %J.
The following is a complete list of valid strftime() substitutions:
</p>







<blockquote>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td><td width="10"><td></tr>

<tr><td> %d <td><td> day of month: 00
<tr><td> %f <td><td> fractional seconds: SS.SSS
<tr><td> %H <td><td> hour: 00-24 
<tr><td> %j <td><td> day of year: 001-366
<tr><td> %J <td><td> Julian day number
<tr><td> %m <td><td> month: 01-12
<tr><td> %M <td><td> minute: 00-59
<tr><td> %s <td><td> seconds since 1970-01-01
<tr><td> %S <td><td> seconds: 00-59
<tr><td> %w <td><td> day of week 0-6 with Sunday==0
<tr><td> %W <td><td> week of year: 00-53




<tr><td> %Y <td><td> year: 0000-9999


<tr><td> %% <td><td> %
</table>
</blockquote>

<p>
Notice that all other date and time functions can be expressed
in terms of strftime():
</p>

<blockquote>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td><b>Function</b><td width="30"><td><b>Equivalent strftime()</b>
<tr><td>   date(...)      <td><td>  strftime('%Y-%m-%d', ...)
<tr><td>   time(...)      <td><td>  strftime('%H:%M:%S', ...)
<tr><td>   datetime(...)  <td><td>  strftime('%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S', ...)
<tr><td>   julianday(...) <td><td>  strftime('%J', ...)
</table>
</blockquote>

<p>
The only reasons for providing functions other than strftime() is
for convenience and for efficiency.
</p>



<h3>Time Strings</h3>



<p>A time string can be in any of the following formats:</p>

<ol>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS.SSS</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD</i><b>T</b><i>HH:MM</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD</i><b>T</b><i>HH:MM:SS</i>
<li> <i>YYYY-MM-DD</i><b>T</b><i>HH:MM:SS.SSS</i>
<li> <i>HH:MM</i>
<li> <i>HH:MM:SS</i>
<li> <i>HH:MM:SS.SSS</i>
<li> <b>now</b>
<li> <i>DDDDDDDDDD</i>

</ol>

<p>
In formats 5 through 7, the "T" is a literal character separating 
the date and the time, as required by 

<a href="http://www.w3c.org/TR/NOTE-datetime">ISO-8601</a>. 
Formats 8 through 10 that specify only a time assume a date of 
2000-01-01. Format 11, the string 'now', is converted into the 
current date and time as obtained from the xCurrentTime method
of the <a href="c3ref/vfs.html">sqlite3_vfs</a> object in use.
The 'now' argument to date and time functions always returns exactly the
same value for multiple invocations within the same <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a> call.
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time">Universal Coordinated Time (UTC)</a> is used. 
Format 12 is the 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_day">Julian day number</a>
expressed as a floating point value.
</p>



<p>


Formats 2 through 10 may be optionally followed by a timezone indicator of the form
"<i>&#91;+-&#93;HH:MM</i>" or just "<i>Z</i>".  The date and time functions use UTC or "zulu"
time internally, and so the "Z" suffix is a no-op.  Any non-zero "HH:MM" suffix is


subtracted from the indicated date and time in order to compute zulu time.
For example, all of the following time strings are equivalent:
</p>

<blockquote>
2013-10-07 08:23:19.120<br>
2013-10-07T08:23:19.120Z<br>
2013-10-07 08:23:19.120-04:00<br>
2456572.84952685
</blockquote>

<p>


In formats 4, 7, and 10, the fractional seconds value SS.SSS can have
one or more digits following the decimal point.  Exactly three digits are
shown in the examples because only the first three digits are significant
to the result, but the input string can have fewer or more than three digits
and the date/time functions will still operate correctly.
Similarly, format 12 is shown with 10 significant digits, but the date/time

functions will really accept as many or as few digits as are necessary to
represent the Julian day number.

</p>


<h3>Modifiers</h3>

<p>The time string can be followed by zero or more modifiers that 
alter date and/or time. Each modifier
is a transformation that is applied to the time value to its left.
Modifiers are applied from left to right; order is important.
The available modifiers are as follows.</p>

<ol>
<li> NNN days
<li> NNN hours
<li> NNN minutes
<li> NNN.NNNN seconds
<li> NNN months
<li> NNN years
<li> start of month

<li> start of year
<li> start of day
<li> weekday N
<li> unixepoch
<li> localtime
<li> utc 
</ol>

<p>The first six modifiers (1 through 6) 
simply add the specified amount of time to the date and time 
specified by the preceding timestring and modifiers.
Note that "&plusmn;NNN months" works by rendering the original date into
the YYYY-MM-DD format, adding the &plusmn;NNN to the MM month value, then
normalizing the result.  Thus, for example, the data 2001-03-31 modified
by '+1 month' initially yields 2001-04-31, but April only has 30 days
so the date is normalized to 2001-05-01.  A similar effect occurs when
the original date is February 29 of a leapyear and the modifier is
&plusmn;N years where N is not a multiple of four.</p>


<p>The "start of" modifiers (7 through 9) shift the date backwards 
to the beginning of the current month, year or day.</p>


<p>The "weekday" modifier advances the date forward to the next date 
where the weekday number is N. Sunday is 0, Monday is 1, and so forth.</p>

<p>The "unixepoch" modifier (11) only works if it immediately follows 
a timestring in the DDDDDDDDDD format. 
This modifier causes the DDDDDDDDDD to be interpreted not 
as a Julian day number as it normally would be, but as
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time">Unix Time</a> - the 
number of seconds since 1970.  If the "unixepoch" modifier does not
follow a timestring of the form DDDDDDDDDD which expresses the number
of seconds since 1970 or if other modifiers
separate the "unixepoch" modifier from prior DDDDDDDDDD then the
behavior is undefined.
Due to precision limitations imposed by the implementations use
of 64-bit integers, the "unixepoch" modifier only works for
dates between 0000-01-01 00:00:00 and 5352-11-01 10:52:47 (unix times
of -62167219200 through 10675199167).</p>



<p>The "localtime" modifier (12) assumes the time string to its left is in
Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) and adjusts the time
string so that it displays localtime.  If "localtime"
follows a time that is not UTC, then the behavior is undefined.
The "utc" is the opposite of "localtime".  "utc" assumes that the string
to its left is in the local timezone and adjusts that string to be in UTC.
If the prior string is not in localtime, then the result of "utc" is
undefined.</p>


<h3>Examples</h3>

<p>Compute the current date.<p>




<blockquote>SELECT date('now');</blockquote>


<p>Compute the last day of the current month.</p>




<blockquote>SELECT date('now','start of month','+1 month','-1 day');
</blockquote>




<p>Compute the date and time given a unix timestamp 1092941466.</p>


<blockquote>
    SELECT datetime(1092941466, 'unixepoch');
</blockquote>

<p>Compute the date and time given a unix timestamp 1092941466, and 
compensate for your local timezone.</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT datetime(1092941466, 'unixepoch', 'localtime');
</blockquote>

<p>Compute the current unix timestamp.</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT strftime('%s','now');
</blockquote>

<p>Compute the number of days since the signing of the US Declaration
of Independence.</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT julianday('now') - julianday('1776-07-04');
</blockquote>

<p>Compute the number of seconds since a particular moment in 2004:</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT strftime('%s','now') - strftime('%s','2004-01-01 02:34:56');
</blockquote>

<p>
Compute the date of the first Tuesday in October




for the current year.
</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT date('now','start of year','+9 months','weekday 2');
</blockquote>

<p>Compute the time since the unix epoch in seconds 
(like strftime('%s','now') except includes fractional part):</p>

<blockquote>
  SELECT (julianday('now') - 2440587.5)*86400.0;
</blockquote>

<h3>Caveats And Bugs</h3>

<p>The computation of local time depends heavily on the whim 
of politicians and is thus difficult to get correct for 
all locales. In this implementation, the standard C library 
function localtime_r() is used to assist in the calculation of 
local time.  The 
localtime_r() C function normally only works for years
between 1970 and 2037. For dates outside this range, SQLite 
attempts to map the year into an equivalent year within 
this range, do the calculation, then map the year back.</p>


<p>These functions only work for dates between 0000-01-01 00:00:00
and 9999-12-31 23:59:59 (julidan day numbers 1721059.5 through 5373484.5).
For dates outside that range, the results of these
functions are undefined.</p>


<p>Non-Vista Windows platforms only support one set of DST rules. 
Vista only supports two. Therefore, on these platforms, 
historical DST calculations will be incorrect. 
For example, in the US, in 2007 the DST rules changed. 
Non-Vista Windows platforms apply the new 2007 DST rules 
to all previous years as well. Vista does somewhat better
getting results correct back to 1986, when the rules were also changed.</p>


<p>All internal computations assume the 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>
system.  It is also assumed that every
day is exactly 86400 seconds in duration.</p>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>

      <h4>
        DELETE</h4>








      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>























              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DELETE FROM </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">WHERE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
































                      expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>

        </table>
      </p>
      <p>



        The DELETE command is used to remove records from a table. The command consists

        of the "DELETE FROM" keywords followed by the


        name of the table from which records












        are to be removed.





      </p>
      <p>

        Without a WHERE clause, all rows of the table are removed. If a WHERE clause is



        supplied, then only those rows that match the expression are removed.</p>



      <p>
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        &nbsp;</p>








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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DELETE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#delete-stmt">delete-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x991' onclick='hideorshow("x991","x992")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x992'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram delete-stmt" src="images/syntax/delete-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x993' onclick='hideorshow("x993","x994")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x994' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x995' onclick='hideorshow("x995","x996")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x996' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x997' onclick='hideorshow("x997","x998")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x998' style='display:none;'>

 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x999' onclick='hideorshow("x999","x1000")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1000' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1001' onclick='hideorshow("x1001","x1002")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1002' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1003' onclick='hideorshow("x1003","x1004")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1004' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1005' onclick='hideorshow("x1005","x1006")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1006' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1007' onclick='hideorshow("x1007","x1008")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1008' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1009' onclick='hideorshow("x1009","x1010")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1010' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1011' onclick='hideorshow("x1011","x1012")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1012' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1013' onclick='hideorshow("x1013","x1014")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1014' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1015' onclick='hideorshow("x1015","x1016")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1016' style='display:none;'>


 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1017' onclick='hideorshow("x1017","x1018")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1018' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1019' onclick='hideorshow("x1019","x1020")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1020' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1021' onclick='hideorshow("x1021","x1022")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1022' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram qualified-table-name" src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1023' onclick='hideorshow("x1023","x1024")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1024' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1025' onclick='hideorshow("x1025","x1026")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1026' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1027' onclick='hideorshow("x1027","x1028")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1028' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1029' onclick='hideorshow("x1029","x1030")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1030' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1031' onclick='hideorshow("x1031","x1032")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1032' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1033' onclick='hideorshow("x1033","x1034")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1034' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1035' onclick='hideorshow("x1035","x1036")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1036' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1037' onclick='hideorshow("x1037","x1038")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1038' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1039' onclick='hideorshow("x1039","x1040")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1040' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1041' onclick='hideorshow("x1041","x1042")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1042' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1043' onclick='hideorshow("x1043","x1044")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1044' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The DELETE command removes records from the table identified by the
   <i>qualified-table-name</i>. 


<p>If the WHERE clause is not present, all records in the table are deleted.
   If a WHERE clause is supplied, then only those rows for which the
   result of evaluating the WHERE clause as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression is true</a> are deleted.

<h3>Restrictions on DELETE Statements Within CREATE TRIGGER</h3>

<p>The following restrictions apply to DELETE statements that occur within the
   body of a <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a> statement:

<ul>
  <li><p>The <i>table-name</i> specified as part of a DELETE statement within
    a trigger body must be unqualified.  In other words, the
    <i>database-name</i><b>.</b> prefix on the table name is not allowed 
    within triggers. If the table to which the trigger is attached is
    not in the temp database, then DELETE statements within the trigger
    body must operate on tables within the same database as it. If the table
    to which the trigger is attached is in the TEMP database, then the
    unqualified name of the table being deleted is resolved in the same way as
    it is for a top-level statement (by searching first the TEMP database, then
    the main database, then any other databases in the order they were
    attached).
    
  <li><p>The INDEXED BY and NOT INDEXED clauses are not allowed on DELETE
    statements within triggers.</p>

  <li><p>The LIMIT and ORDER BY clauses (described below) are unsupported for
    DELETE statements within triggers.</p>
</ul>

<h3>Optional LIMIT and ORDER BY clauses</h3>

<p>If SQLite is compiled with the <a href="compile.html#enable_update_delete_limit">SQLITE_ENABLE_UPDATE_DELETE_LIMIT</a>
compile-time option, then the syntax of the DELETE statement is
extended by the addition of optional ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram delete-stmt-limited" src="images/syntax/delete-stmt-limited.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>


<p>If a DELETE statement has a LIMIT clause, the maximum number of rows that
will be deleted is found by evaluating the accompanying expression and casting
it to an integer value. If the result of the evaluating the LIMIT clause
cannot be losslessly converted to an integer value, it is an error. A 
negative LIMIT value is interpreted as "no limit". If the DELETE statement 
also has an OFFSET clause, then it is similarly evaluated and cast to an
integer value. Again, it is an error if the value cannot be losslessly
converted to an integer. If there is no OFFSET clause, or the calculated
integer value is negative, the effective OFFSET value is zero.

<p>If the DELETE statement has an ORDER BY clause, then all rows that would 
be deleted in the absence of the LIMIT clause are sorted according to the 
ORDER BY. The first <i>M</i> rows, where <i>M</i> is the value found by
evaluating the OFFSET clause expression, are skipped, and the following 
<i>N</i>, where <i>N</i> is the value of the LIMIT expression, are deleted.
If there are less than <i>N</i> rows remaining after taking the OFFSET clause
into account, or if the LIMIT clause evaluated to a negative value, then all
remaining rows are deleted.

<p>If the DELETE statement has no ORDER BY clause, then all rows that
would be deleted in the absence of the LIMIT clause are assembled in an
arbitrary order before applying the LIMIT and OFFSET clauses to determine 
the subset that are actually deleted.

<p>The ORDER BY clause on a DELETE statement is used only to determine which
rows fall within the LIMIT. The order in which rows are deleted is arbitrary
and is not influenced by the ORDER BY clause.

<a name="truncateopt"></a>

<h3>The Truncate Optimization</h3>

<p>When the WHERE is omitted from a DELETE statement and the table
being deleted has no triggers,
SQLite uses an optimization to erase the entire table content
without having to visit each row of the table individually.
This "truncate" optimization makes the delete run much faster.
Prior to SQLite <a href="releaselog/3_6_5.html">version 3.6.5</a>, the truncate optimization
also meant that the <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a> and
<a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a> interfaces
and the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_count_changes">count_changes pragma</a>
will not actually return the number of deleted rows.  
That problem has been fixed as of <a href="releaselog/3_6_5.html">version 3.6.5</a>.

<p>The truncate optimization can be permanently disabled for all queries
by recompiling
SQLite with the <a href="compile.html#omit_truncate_optimization">SQLITE_OMIT_TRUNCATE_OPTIMIZATION</a> compile-time switch.</p>

<p>The truncate optimization can also be disabled at runtime using
the <a href="c3ref/set_authorizer.html">sqlite3_set_authorizer()</a> interface.  If an authorizer callback
returns <a href="c3ref/c_deny.html">SQLITE_IGNORE</a> for an <a href="c3ref/c_alter_table.html">SQLITE_DELETE</a> action code, then
the DELETE operation will proceed but the truncate optimization will
be bypassed and rows will be deleted one by one.</p>
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  <head>
    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=Windows-1252" />
    <title>DETACH</title>
    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../Include/ndoc.css" />
  </head>
  <body>


    <div id="header">

      <table width="100%" id="topTable">


        <tr id="headerTableRow1">



          <td align="left">





            <span id="runningHeaderText">DETACH</span>&nbsp;</td>
        </tr>

        <tr id="headerTableRow2">






          <td align="left">
            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
          </td>

        </tr>
        <tr id="headerTableRow3" style="display:none">
          <td>
            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>

            <a id="exampleSectionLink" href="#codeExampleToggle" onclick="OpenSection(codeExampleToggle)">Example</a>
          </td>
        </tr>
     </table>
      <table width="100%" id="bottomTable" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="display:none">
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              <img ID="toggleAllImage" class="toggleAll" src="collall.gif" />

              <label id="collapseAllLabel" for="toggleAllImage" style="display: none;">
							Collapse All
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              <label id="expandAllLabel" for="toggleAllImage" style="display: none;">



							Expand All
						</label>
            </span>
          </td>
        </tr>


      </table>



    </div>
    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        DETACH</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DETACH </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">DATABASE</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>





































        </table>
      </p>

      <p>







        This statement detaches an additional database connection previously attached using


        the <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH DATABASE</a> statement. It is possible to have the same database file attached multiple times using different names, and detaching
        one connection to a file will leave the others intact.</p>



      <p>
        This statement will fail if SQLite is in the middle of a transaction.</p>
      <p>
      <hr>
        &nbsp;</p>
      <div id="footer">
        <p>
          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>
        </p>
      </div>
    </div>
    </div>
  </body>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DETACH DATABASE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#detach-stmt">detach-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1045' onclick='hideorshow("x1045","x1046")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1046'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram detach-stmt" src="images/syntax/detach-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>This statement detaches an additional database connection previously 
attached using the <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a> statement.  
When not in <a href="sharedcache.html">shared cache mode</a>, 
it is possible to have the same database file attached multiple times using 
different names, and detaching one connection to a file will leave the 
others intact.</p>
In <a href="sharedcache.html">shared cache mode</a>, attempting to attach the same database file more
than once results in an error.

<p>This statement will fail if SQLite is in the middle of a transaction.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_dropindex.html. 
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        DROP INDEX</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DROP INDEX </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">IF EXISTS</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">index-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>

        The DROP INDEX statement removes an index added with the <a href="lang_createindex.html">















          CREATE INDEX</a> statement. The index named is completely removed from the disk.
        The only way to recover the index is to reenter the appropriate CREATE INDEX command.</p>
      <p>
        The DROP INDEX statement does not reduce the size of the database file in the default
        mode. Empty space in the database is retained for later INSERTs. To remove free
        space in the database, use the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">
          VACUUM</a> command. If
        AUTOVACUUM mode is enabled for a database then space will be freed automatically by DROP INDEX.</p>
      <p>

      <hr>

        &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DROP INDEX</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#drop-index-stmt">drop-index-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1047' onclick='hideorshow("x1047","x1048")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1048'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram drop-index-stmt" src="images/syntax/drop-index-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The DROP INDEX statement removes an index added
with the <a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a> statement.  The index is completely removed from
the disk.  The only way to recover the index is to reenter the
appropriate <a href="lang_createindex.html">CREATE INDEX</a> command.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_droptable.html. 
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">DROP TABLE</span>&nbsp;</td>
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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
          </td>

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        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>




        DROP TABLE</h4>
      <p>





















        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DROP TABLE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">IF EXISTS</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"><big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>
        The DROP TABLE statement removes a table added with the <a href="#createtable">CREATE TABLE</a> statement. The
        name specified is the table name. It is completely removed
        from the database schema and the disk file. The table can not be recovered. All



        indices associated with the table are also deleted.</p>


      <p>

        The DROP TABLE statement does not reduce the size of the database file in the default

        mode. Empty space in the database is retained for later INSERTs. To remove free





        space in the database, use the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">
          VACUUM</a> command. If
        AUTOVACUUM mode is enabled for a database then space will be freed automatically by DROP TABLE.</p>





      <p>
        The optional IF EXISTS clause suppresses the error that would normally result if the table does not exist.</p>
      <p>
      <hr>
        &nbsp;</p>
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<title>SQLite Query Language: DROP TABLE</title>
<style type="text/css">

body {
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    font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;
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}

a { color: #044a64 }
a:visited { color: #734559 }

.logo { position:absolute; margin:3px; }
.tagline {
  float:right;
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  font-style:italic;
  width:300px;
  margin:12px;
  margin-top:58px;
}

.menubar {
  clear: both;
  border-radius: 8px;
  background: #044a64;
  padding: 0px;
  margin: 0px;
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}    
.toolbar {
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  line-height: 1.6em;
  margin: 0;

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}
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.toolbar a:hover { color: #044a64; background: white; }

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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DROP TABLE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#drop-table-stmt">drop-table-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1049' onclick='hideorshow("x1049","x1050")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1050'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram drop-table-stmt" src="images/syntax/drop-table-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The DROP TABLE statement removes a table added with the
<a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a> statement.  The name specified is the
table name.  The dropped table is completely removed from the database 
schema and the disk file.  The table can not be recovered.  
All indices and triggers
associated with the table are also deleted.</p>

<p>The optional IF EXISTS clause suppresses the error that would normally







result if the table does not exist.</p>

<p>If <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> are enabled, a DROP TABLE command performs an
implicit <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE FROM &lt;tbl&gt;</a> command before removing the
table from the database schema. Any triggers attached to the table are
dropped from the database schema before the implicit DELETE FROM &lt;tbl&gt; 
is executed, so this cannot cause any triggers to fire. By contrast, an
implicit DELETE FROM &lt;tbl&gt; does cause any configured
<a href="foreignkeys.html#fk_actions">foreign key actions</a> to take place. 
If the implicit DELETE FROM &lt;tbl&gt; executed
as part of a DROP TABLE command violates any immediate foreign key constraints,
an error is returned and the table is not dropped. If 
the implicit DELETE FROM &lt;tbl&gt; causes any 
deferred foreign key constraints to be violated, and the violations still
exist when the transaction is committed, an error is returned at the time
of commit.
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        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        DROP TRIGGER</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
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            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">DROP TRIGGER </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">trigger-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>

          </tr>





































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      </p>

      <p>







        The DROP TRIGGER statement removes a trigger created by the <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">



          CREATE TRIGGER</a> statement. The trigger is deleted from the database schema.
        Note that triggers are automatically dropped when the associated table is dropped.</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DROP TRIGGER</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#drop-trigger-stmt">drop-trigger-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1051' onclick='hideorshow("x1051","x1052")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1052'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram drop-trigger-stmt" src="images/syntax/drop-trigger-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The DROP TRIGGER statement removes a trigger created by the 
<a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a> statement. Once removed, the trigger definition is no
longer present in the sqlite_master (or sqlite_temp_master) table and is
not fired by any subsequent INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE statements.

<p>Note that triggers are automatically dropped when the associated table is
dropped.
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        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>




        DROP VIEW</h4>

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              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-command</font></i> ::=</td>
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                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
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      <p>








        The DROP VIEW statement removes a view created by the <a href="#createview">CREATE VIEW</a> statement. The

        name specified is the view name. It is removed from the








        database schema, but no actual data
        in the underlying base tables is modified.</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>DROP VIEW</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#drop-view-stmt">drop-view-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1053' onclick='hideorshow("x1053","x1054")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1054'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram drop-view-stmt" src="images/syntax/drop-view-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The DROP VIEW statement removes a view created by the <a href="lang_createview.html">CREATE VIEW</a> 
  statement. The view definition is removed from the database schema, but 
  no actual data in the underlying base tables is modified.

<p>The view to drop is identified by the view-name and optional 
  database-name specified as part of the DROP VIEW statement. This 
  reference is resolved using the standard procedure for <a href="lang_naming.html">object resolution</a>.



<p>

  If the specified view cannot be found and the IF EXISTS clause is not 
  present, it is an error. If the specified view cannot be found and an IF
  EXISTS clause is present in the DROP VIEW statement, then the statement
  is a no-op.
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_explain.html. 
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">EXPLAIN</span>&nbsp;</td>
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          <td align="left">
            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
          </td>

        </tr>



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          <td>




            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>


















            <a id="exampleSectionLink" href="#codeExampleToggle" onclick="OpenSection(codeExampleToggle)">Example</a>
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    </div>


    <div id="mainSection">


















    <div id="mainBody">

      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        EXPLAIN</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">



          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">EXPLAIN </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i><b><font




                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>

      <p>



        The EXPLAIN command modifier is a non-standard extension. The idea comes from a similar command found in PostgreSQL, but the operation is completely different.</p>
      <p>



        If the EXPLAIN keyword appears before any

          other SQLite SQL command then instead





        of actually executing the command, the SQLite library will report back the sequence


        of virtual machine instructions it would have used to execute the command had the
        EXPLAIN keyword not been present. For additional information about virtual machine


        instructions see the <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/arch.html">architecture description</a>

        or the documentation on <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/opcode.html">available opcodes</a>
        for the virtual machine.</p>
      <p>
        &nbsp;</p>
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<div class=startsearch></div>
  
<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>EXPLAIN</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#sql-stmt">sql-stmt:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram sql-stmt" src="images/syntax/sql-stmt.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>


<p>An SQL statement can be preceded by the keyword "EXPLAIN" or
by the phrase "EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN".  Either modification causes the
SQL statement to behave as a query and to return information about
how the SQL statement would have operated if the EXPLAIN keyword or
phrase had been omitted.</p>

<p>The output from EXPLAIN and EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN is intended for
interactive analysis and troubleshooting only.  The details of the 
output format are subject to change from one release of SQLite to the next.
Applications should not use EXPLAIN or EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN since
their exact behavior is variable and only partially documented.</p>

<p>When the EXPLAIN keyword appears by itself it causes the statement
to behave as a query that returns the sequence of 
<a href="opcode.html">virtual machine instructions</a> it would have used to execute the command had
the EXPLAIN keyword not been present. When the EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN phrase
appears, the statement returns high-level information regarding the query
plan that would have been used.

The EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN command is described in 
<a href="eqp.html">more detail here</a>.
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_expr.html. 
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">expression</span>&nbsp;</td>
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      <h1 class="heading">




        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        expression</h4>
      <p>


        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">binary-op</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                  </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">like-op</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0">ESCAPE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">unary-op</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                  </b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    <big>.</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                      <big>.</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        <big>.</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                        </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">literal-value</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                        </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">parameter</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                        </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">function-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>*</big> <big>)</big> </font>
                          </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> ISNULL
                          </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> NOTNULL
                          </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                          </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> BETWEEN </font>
                          </b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> AND </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><big>
                |</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> IN <big>(</big>
                </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">value-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                  </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> IN <big>(</big>
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                    </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NOT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> IN </font></b>
              [<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
              </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">EXISTS</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>

                (</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    CASE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>(<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        WHEN </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          THEN </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                          </font></b>)+<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">ELSE </font>
                          </b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font


                            color="#2c2cf0"> END </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                              CAST <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                                AS </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">type</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>
                                  )</big></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">like-op</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">LIKE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> GLOB
              </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> REGEXP </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> MATCH</font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>
        This section is different from the others. Most other sections of this document
        talks about a particular SQL command. This section does not talk about a standalone
        command but about "expressions" which are subcomponents of most other commands.</p>
      <p>
        SQLite understands the following binary operators, in order from highest to lowest
        precedence:</p>
      <blockquote>
        <pre><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>|| * / % + - &lt;&lt; &gt;&gt; &amp; | &lt; &lt;= &gt;
  &gt;= = == != &lt;&gt; </big>IN AND OR</font>

</pre>

      </blockquote>
      <p>
        Supported unary operators are these:</p>


      <blockquote>
        <pre><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>- + ! ~ NOT</big></font>


</pre>
      </blockquote>
      <p>
        The unary operator [Operator +] is a no-op. It can be applied to strings, numbers,
        or blobs and it always gives as its result the value of the operand.</p>
      <p>
        Note that there are two variations of the equals and not equals operators. Equals
        can be either <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>=</big></font> or <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>
          ==</big></font>. The non-equals operator can be either <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>
            !=</big></font> or <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>&lt;&gt;</big></font>. The <font color="#2c2cf0">
              <big>||</big></font> operator is "concatenate" - it joins together the two
        strings of its operands. The operator <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>%</big></font>
        outputs the remainder of its left operand modulo its right operand.</p>
      <p>

        The result of any binary operator is a numeric value, except for the <font color="#2c2cf0">
          <big>||</big></font> concatenation operator which gives a string result.</p>
      <a name="literal_value"></a>
      <p>
        A literal value is an integer number or a floating point number. Scientific notation
        is supported. The "." character is always used as the decimal point even if the
        locale setting specifies "," for this role - the use of "," for the decimal point
        would result in syntactic ambiguity. A string constant is formed by enclosing the
        string in single quotes ('). A single quote within the string can be encoded by
        putting two single quotes in a row - as in Pascal. C-style escapes using the backslash
        character are not supported because they are not standard SQL. BLOB literals are
        string literals containing hexadecimal data and preceded by a single "x" or "X"
        character. For example:</p>

      <blockquote>
        <pre>X'53514697465'
</pre>




      </blockquote>


      <p>
        A literal value can also be the token "NULL".

      </p>
      <p>
        A parameter specifies a placeholder in the expression for a literal value that is
        filled in at runtime using the <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_bind_int">sqlite3_bind</a>
        API. Parameters can take several forms:
      </p>

      <p>
        <table>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <b>?</b><i>NNN</i></td>
            <td width="20">
            </td>
            <td>
              A question mark followed by a number <i>NNN</i> holds a spot for the NNN-th parameter.
              NNN must be between 1 and 999.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <b>?</b></td>

            <td width="20">


            </td>
            <td>
              A question mark that is not followed by a number holds a spot for the next unused
              parameter.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <b>:</b><i>AAAA</i></td>
            <td width="20">
            </td>

            <td>
              A colon followed by an identifier name holds a spot for a named parameter with the
              name AAAA. Named parameters are also numbered. The number assigned is the next unused
              number. To avoid confusion, it is best to avoid mixing named and numbered parameters.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <b>@</b><i>AAAA</i></td>
            <td width="20">
            </td>

            <td>
              An "at" sign works exactly like a colon.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <b>$</b><i>AAAA</i></td>
            <td width="20">
            </td>
            <td>
              A dollar-sign followed by an identifier name also holds a spot for a named parameter
              with the name AAAA. The identifier name in this case can include one or more occurances
              of "::" and a suffix enclosed in "(...)" containing any text at all. This syntax
              is the form of a variable name in the Tcl programming language.</td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <blockquote>
      </blockquote>
      <p>
        Parameters that are not assigned values using <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_bind_int">




          sqlite3_bind</a> are treated as NULL.</p>
      <a name="like"></a>
      <p>
        The LIKE operator does a pattern matching comparison. The operand to the right contains


        the pattern, the left hand operand contains the string to match against the pattern.

        A percent symbol <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>%</big></font> in the pattern matches
        any sequence of zero or more characters in the string. An underscore <font color="#2c2cf0">
          <big>_</big></font> in the pattern matches any single character in the string.
        Any other character matches itself or it's lower/upper case equivalent (i.e. case-insensitive
        matching). (A bug: SQLite only understands upper/lower case for 7-bit Latin characters.
        Hence the LIKE operator is case sensitive for 8-bit iso8859 characters or UTF-8
        characters. For example, the expression <b>'a' LIKE 'A'</b> is TRUE but <b>'æ' LIKE
          'Æ'</b> is FALSE.).</p>
      <p>
        If the optional ESCAPE clause is present, then the expression following the ESCAPE
        keyword must evaluate to a string consisting of a single character. This character
        may be used in the LIKE pattern to include literal percent or underscore characters.
        The escape character followed by a percent symbol, underscore or itself matches
        a literal percent symbol, underscore or escape character in the string, respectively.
        The infix LIKE operator is implemented by calling the user function <a href="#likeFunc">
          like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</a>.</p>
      <p>
        The LIKE operator is not case sensitive and will match upper case characters on
        one side against lower case characters on the other. (A bug: SQLite only understands
        upper/lower case for 7-bit Latin characters. Hence the LIKE operator is case sensitive
        for 8-bit iso8859 characters or UTF-8 characters. For example, the expression <b>'a'
          LIKE 'A'</b> is TRUE but <b>'æ' LIKE 'Æ'</b> is FALSE.).

      </p>
      <p>
      </p>
      <p>
        The infix LIKE operator is implemented by calling the user function <a href="#likeFunc">
          like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</a>. If an ESCAPE clause is present, it adds a third parameter
        to the function call. If the functionality of LIKE can be overridden by defining
        an alternative implementation of the like() SQL function.</p>
      <p>









      </p>
      <a name="glob"></a>
      <p>
        The GLOB operator is similar to LIKE but uses the Unix file globbing syntax for
        its wildcards. Also, GLOB is case sensitive, unlike LIKE. Both GLOB and LIKE may

        be preceded by the NOT keyword to invert the sense of the test. The infix GLOB operator
        is implemented by calling the user function <a href="#globFunc">glob(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</a>
        and can be modified by overriding that function.</p>
      <a name="regexp"></a>
      <p>
        The REGEXP operator is a special syntax for the regexp() user function. No regexp()
        user function is defined by default and so use of the REGEXP operator will normally
        result in an error message. If a user-defined function named "regexp" is added at
        run-time, that function will be called in order to implement the REGEXP operator.</p>
      <a name="match"></a>
      <p>
        The MATCH operator is a special syntax for the match() user function. The default
        match() function implementation raises and exception and is not really useful for
        anything. But extensions can override the match() function with more helpful logic.</p>
      <p>
        A column name can be any of the names defined in the CREATE TABLE statement or one
        of the following special identifiers: "<b>ROWID</b>", "<b>OID</b>", or "<b>_ROWID_</b>".
        These special identifiers all describe the unique random integer key (the "row key")
        associated with every row of every table. The special identifiers only refer to
        the row key if the CREATE TABLE statement does not define a real column with the
        same name. Row keys act like read-only columns. A row key can be used anywhere a

        regular column can be used, except that you cannot change the value of a row key
        in an UPDATE or INSERT statement. "SELECT * ..." does not return the row key.</p>
      <p>

        SELECT statements can appear in expressions as either the right-hand operand of
        the IN operator, as a scalar quantity, or as the operand of an EXISTS operator.
        As a scalar quantity or the operand of an IN operator, the SELECT should have only
        a single column in its result. Compound SELECTs (connected with keywords like UNION
        or EXCEPT) are allowed. With the EXISTS operator, the columns in the result set
        of the SELECT are ignored and the expression returns TRUE if one or more rows exist
        and FALSE if the result set is empty. If no terms in the SELECT expression refer
        to value in the containing query, then the expression is evaluated once prior to
        any other processing and the result is reused as necessary. If the SELECT expression
        does contain variables from the outer query, then the SELECT is reevaluated every
        time it is needed.</p>
      <p>
        When a SELECT is the right operand of the IN operator, the IN operator returns TRUE
        if the result of the left operand is any of the values generated by the select.
        The IN operator may be preceded by the NOT keyword to invert the sense of the test.</p>
      <p>
        When a SELECT appears within an expression but is not the right operand of an IN


        operator, then the first row of the result of the SELECT becomes the value used
        in the expression. If the SELECT yields more than one result row, all rows after the first are ignored. If the SELECT yields no rows, then the value of the SELECT
        is NULL.</p>
      <p>

        A CAST expression changes the datatype of the
        <expr>
</expr>
        into the type specified by &lt;type&gt;. &lt;type&gt; can be any non-empty type
        name that is valid for the type in a column definition of a CREATE TABLE statement.</p>
      <p>
        Both simple and aggregate functions are supported. A simple function can be used
        in any expression. Simple functions return a result immediately based on their inputs.
        Aggregate functions may only be used in a SELECT statement. Aggregate functions
        compute their result across all rows of the result set.</p>
      <p>
        <a name="corefunctions"></a><b>Core Functions</b>
      </p>
      <p>
        The core functions shown below are available by default. Additional functions may
        be written in C and added to the database engine using the <a href="capi3ref.html#cfunc">
          sqlite3_create_function()</a> API.</p>
      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" valign="top" width="1%" nowrap>
              abs(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the absolute value of argument <i>X</i>.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              acos(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              A mathematical function that returns the angle, in radians, whose cosine is the 

              specified <b>double</b> expression</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              acosh(<i>X</i>)</td>


            <td valign="top">


              Inverse hyperbolic cosine</td>



          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              asin(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the angle, in radians, whose sine is the specified <b>double</b> 
              expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              asinh(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Inverse hyperbolic sine</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              atan(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the angle in radians whose tangent is a specified <b>double</b> 
              expression</td>



          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              atanh(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Inverse hyperbolic tangent</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap class="style1">

              atn2(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)<br />
              atan2(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top" class="style1">
              Returns the angle, in radians, between the positive x-axis and the ray from the 
              origin to the point (y, x), where x and y are the values of the two specified 
              double expressions</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              ceil(<i>X</i>)<br />
              ceiling(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">


              Returns the smallest integer greater than, or equal to, the specified numeric 

              expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>




              charindex(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>[,<i>Z</i>])</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the 1-based position of the string <i>X</i> inside the string <i>Y</i> 
              starting at position <i>Z</i>.&nbsp; Returns 0 if not <i>X</i> is not found 
              within <i>Y</i>.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              coalesce(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return a copy of the first non-NULL argument. If all arguments are NULL then NULL
              is returned. There must be at least 2 arguments.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>


              cos(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              a mathematical function that returns the trigonometric cosine of the specified 
              angle, in radians, in the specified expression</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              cosh(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Hyperbolic cosine</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              cot(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              A mathematical function that returns the trigonometric cotangent of the 
              specified angle, in radians, in the specified <b>double</b> expression</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              coth(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              <span class="h1purpose">Hyperbolic cotangent</span></td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              difference(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns an integer value that indicates the difference between the SOUNDEX 
              values of two character expressions</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              degrees(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Converts radians to degrees</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              exp(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the exponential value of the specified expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              floor(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the largest integer less than or equal to the specified numeric 
              expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <a name="globFunc"></a>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              glob(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              This function is used to implement the "<b>X GLOB Y</b>" syntax of SQLite. The <a
                href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_create_function">sqlite3_create_function()</a> interface
              can be used to override this function and thereby change the operation of the <a
                href="#globFunc">GLOB</a> operator.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              ifnull(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">


              Return a copy of the first non-NULL argument. If both arguments are NULL then NULL
              is returned. This behaves the same as <b>coalesce()</b> above.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              last_insert_rowid()</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the ROWID of the last row insert from this connection to the database. This
              is the same value that would be returned from the <b>sqlite_last_insert_rowid()</b>
              API function.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              last_rows_affected()</td>
            <td valign="top">

              Returns the number of rows affected by the last insert/update operation</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              leftstr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the leftmost <i>Y</i> characters in string <i>X</i>.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              length(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the string length of <i>X</i> in characters. If SQLite is configured to support
              UTF-8, then the number of UTF-8 characters is returned, not the number of bytes.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <a name="likeFunc"></a>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              like(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i> [,<i>Z</i>])</td>
            <td valign="top">

              This function is used to implement the "<b>X LIKE Y [ESCAPE Z]</b>" syntax of SQL.
              If the optional ESCAPE clause is present, then the user-function is invoked with
              three arguments. Otherwise, it is invoked with two arguments only. The <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_create_function">

                sqlite_create_function()</a> interface can be used to override this function and

              thereby change the operation of the <a href="#like">LIKE</a> operator. When doing
              this, it may be important to override both the two and three argument versions of
              the like() function. Otherwise, different code may be called to implement the LIKE
              operator depending on whether or not an ESCAPE clause was specified.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              load_extension(<i>X</i>)<br />
              load_extension(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Load SQLite extensions out of the shared library file named <i>X</i> using the entry
              point <i>Y</i>. The result is a NULL. If <i>Y</i> is omitted then the default entry
              point of <b>sqlite3_extension_init</b> is used. This function raises an exception
              if the extension fails to load or initialize correctly.

            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              log(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the natural logarithm of the specified <b>double</b> expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              log10(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the base-10 logarithm of the specified <b>double</b> expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>


            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              lower(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return a copy of string <i>X</i> will all characters converted to lower case. The
              C library <b>tolower()</b> routine is used for the conversion, which means that
              this function might not work correctly on UTF-8 characters.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              max(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the argument with the maximum value. Arguments may be strings in addition
              to numbers. The maximum value is determined by the usual sort order. Note that <b>
                max()</b> is a simple function when it has 2 or more arguments but converts to
              an aggregate function if given only a single argument.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              min(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,...)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the argument with the minimum value. Arguments may be strings in addition
              to numbers. The minimum value is determined by the usual sort order. Note that <b>
                min()</b> is a simple function when it has 2 or more arguments but converts to
              an aggregate function if given only a single argument.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              nullif(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the first argument if the arguments are different, otherwise return NULL.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              padc(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Pads the given string <i>X</i> on the left and the right with spaces until it is 
              the specified length <i>Y</i></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              padl(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Pads the given string <i>X</i> on the left with spaces until it is the specified 
              length <i>Y</i></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              padr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Pads the given string <i>X</i> on the right with spaces until it is the 
              specified length <i>Y</i></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              pi</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the value of pi</td>
          </tr>










          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              power(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the value of the specified expression <i>X</i> to the specified power <i>
              Y</i></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>

            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              proper(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">

              Proper-case the given string <i>X</i></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              quote(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              This routine returns a string which is the value of its argument suitable for inclusion
              into another SQL statement. Strings are surrounded by single-quotes with escapes
              on interior quotes as needed. BLOBs are encoded as hexadecimal literals. The current
              implementation of
          VACUUM uses this function. The function is also useful when writing
              triggers to implement undo/redo functionality.
            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              radians(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Converts degrees to radians</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>

            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              random(*)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return a pseudo-random integer between -9223372036854775808 and +9223372036854775807.</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              replace(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</td>

            <td valign="top">
              Replace all occurances of <i>Y</i> inside string <i>X</i> with the replacement 
              text <i>Z</i>.&nbsp; Case-sensitive.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              replicate(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the concatenation of string <i>X</i> repeated <i>Y</i> times</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              reverse(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the string <i>X</i> reversed</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              rightstr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the right-most <i>Y</i> characters in string <i>X</i>.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              round(<i>X</i>)<br />
              round(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Round off the number <i>X</i> to <i>Y</i> digits to the right of the decimal point.
              If the <i>Y</i> argument is omitted, 0 is assumed.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              sign(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the positive (+1), zero (0), or negative (-1) sign of the specified 
              expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>




              sin(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the trigonometric sine of the specified angle, in radians, and in an 

              approximate numeric, <b>double</b>, expression</td>





          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              soundex(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Compute the soundex encoding of the string <i>X</i>. The string &quot;?000&quot; is 
              returned if the argument is NULL.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>

            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              sqlite_version(*)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the version string for the SQLite library that is running. Example: "3.6.0"</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              sqrt(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the square root of the specified value</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              square(X)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the square of the specified value</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              strfilter(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Given a source string <i>X</i> and the characters to filter <i>Y</i>, returns <i>
              X</i> with all characters not found in <i>Y</i> removed.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              substr(<i>X</i>,<i>Y</i>,<i>Z</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return a substring of input string <i>X</i> that begins with the <i>Y</i>-th character
              and which is <i>Z</i> characters long. The left-most character of <i>X</i> is number
              1. If <i>Y</i> is negative the the first character of the substring is found by
              counting from the right rather than the left. If SQLite is configured to support
              UTF-8, then characters indices refer to actual UTF-8 characters, not bytes.</td>

          </tr>
          <tr>

            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>



              tan(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the tangent of the input expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              tanh(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Hyperbolic tangent</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              typeof(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the type of the expression <i>X</i>. The only return values are "null", "integer",



              "real", "text", and "blob".

        SQLite's type handling is explained in <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/datatype3.html">



                Datatypes in SQLite Version 3</a>.</td>
          </tr>

          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              upper(<i>X</i>)</td>

            <td valign="top">
              Return a copy of input string <i>X</i> converted to all upper-case letters. The
              implementation of this function uses the C library routine <b>toupper()</b> which
              means it may not work correctly on UTF-8 strings.</td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>
        <a name="aggregatefunctions"></a><b>Aggregate Functions</b>
      </p>
      <p>
        The aggregate functions shown below are available by default. Additional aggregate
        functions written in C may be added using the <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_create_function">
          sqlite3_create_function()</a> API.</p>
      <p>
        In any aggregate function that takes a single argument, that argument can be preceeded
        by the keyword DISTINCT. In such cases, duplicate elements are filtered before being
        passed into the aggregate function. For example, the function "count(distinct X)"
        will return the number of distinct values of column X instead of the total number
        of non-null values in column X.
      </p>
      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" valign="top" width="120">
              avg(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the average value of all non-NULL <i>X</i> within a group. String and BLOB

              values that do not look like numbers are interpreted as 0. The result of avg() is
              always a floating point value even if all inputs are integers.
              <p>



              </p>
            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              count(<i>X</i>)<br />
              count(*)</td>


            <td valign="top">
              The first form return a count of the number of times that <i>X</i> is not NULL in



              a group. The second form (with no argument) returns the total number of rows in

              the group.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>




              lower_quartile(<i>X</i>)</td>



            <td valign="top">
              Returns the lower quartile of the given numbers in the set</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              max(<i>X</i>)</td>

            <td valign="top">
              Return the maximum value of all values in the group. The usual sort order is used




              to determine the maximum.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              median(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the middle value in a set of ordered numbers. (The medial value is 
              unlike the mean value, which is the sum of a set of numbers divided by the count 
              of numbers in the set). The median value is determined by choosing the smallest 
              value such that at least half of the values in the set are no greater than the 
              chosen value. If the number of values within the set is odd, the median value 
              corresponds to a single value. If the number of values within the set is even, 
              the median value corresponds to the sum of the two middle values divided by two.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              min(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the minimum non-NULL value of all values in the group. The usual sort order
              is used to determine the minimum. NULL is only returned if all values in the group
              are NULL.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              mode(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Computes the most frequently occurring value in a sample set</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>




            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              stdev(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the statistical standard deviation of all values in the specified 
              expression</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              sum(<i>X</i>)<br />
              total(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Return the numeric sum of all non-NULL values in the group. If there are no non-NULL
              input rows then sum() returns NULL but total() returns 0.0. NULL is not normally
              a helpful result for the sum of no rows but the SQL standard requires it and most
              other SQL database engines implement sum() that way so SQLite does it in the same
              way in order to be compatible. The non-standard total() function is provided as
              a convenient way to work around this design problem in the SQL language.
              <p>
              </p>
              <p>
                The result of total() is always a floating point value. The result of sum() is an


                integer value if all non-NULL inputs are integers. If any input to sum() is neither

                an integer or a NULL then sum() returns a floating point value which might be an


                approximation to the true sum.</p>
              <p>
                Sum() will throw an "integer overflow" exception if all inputs are integers or NULL
                and an integer overflow occurs at any point during the computation. Total() never
                throws an exception.</p>
            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              upper_quartile(<i>X</i>)</td>
            <td valign="top">
              Returns the upper quartile of the numbers in the given set</td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <hr>
      <div id="footer">
        <p>
          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>
        </p>
      </div>
    </div>
    </div>
  </body>
</html>

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<div class=startsearch></div>
  
<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>expression</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1055' onclick='hideorshow("x1055","x1056")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1056'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1057' onclick='hideorshow("x1057","x1058")'>show</button></p>

 <blockquote id='x1058' style='display:none;'>




 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1059' onclick='hideorshow("x1059","x1060")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1060' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1061' onclick='hideorshow("x1061","x1062")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1062' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1063' onclick='hideorshow("x1063","x1064")'>show</button></p>

 <blockquote id='x1064' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1065' onclick='hideorshow("x1065","x1066")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1066' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1067' onclick='hideorshow("x1067","x1068")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1068' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1069' onclick='hideorshow("x1069","x1070")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1070' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1071' onclick='hideorshow("x1071","x1072")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1072' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>



</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1073' onclick='hideorshow("x1073","x1074")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1074' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1075' onclick='hideorshow("x1075","x1076")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1076' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1077' onclick='hideorshow("x1077","x1078")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1078' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1079' onclick='hideorshow("x1079","x1080")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1080' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1081' onclick='hideorshow("x1081","x1082")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1082' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />








</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>This section is different from the others.  Most other sections of
this document talks about a particular SQL command.  This section does
not talk about a standalone command but about "expressions" which are 
subcomponents of most other commands.</p>

<a name="binaryops"></a>

<h3>Operators</h3>
<p>SQLite understands the following binary operators, in order from
highest to lowest precedence:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
<font color="#2c2cf0"><big>||
*    /    %
+    -
&lt;&lt;   &gt;&gt;   &amp;    |
&lt;    &lt;=   &gt;    &gt;=
=    ==   !=   &lt;&gt;   </big>IS   IS NOT   IN   LIKE   GLOB   MATCH   REGEXP
AND   
OR</font>
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Supported unary prefix operators are these:</p>





<blockquote><pre>





<font color="#2c2cf0"><big>-    +    ~    NOT</big></font>
</pre></blockquote>

<a name="collateop"></a>





<p>The COLLATE operator is a unary postfix
operator that assigns a <a href="datatype3.html#collation">collating sequence</a> to an expression.
The COLLATE operator has a higher precedence (binds more tightly) than any
binary operator and any unary prefix operator except "~".
(COLLATE and "~" are associative so their binding order does not matter.)
The collating sequence set by the COLLATE operator overrides the
collating sequence determined by the COLLATE clause in a table
<a href="lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef">column definition</a>.
See the <a href="datatype3.html#collation">detailed discussion on collating sequences</a>
in the <a href="datatype3.html">Datatype In SQLite3</a> document for additional information.
</p>


<p>The unary operator <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>+</big></font> is a no-op.  It can be applied

to strings, numbers, blobs or NULL and it always returns a result
with the same value as the operand.</p>

<p>Note that there are two variations of the equals and not equals


operators.  Equals can be either















<font color="#2c2cf0"><big>=</big></font> or <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>==</big></font>.
The non-equals operator can be either

<font color="#2c2cf0"><big>!=</big></font> or <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>&lt;&gt;</big></font>.
The <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>||</big></font> operator is "concatenate" - it joins together
the two strings of its operands.
The operator <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>%</big></font> outputs the value of its left 
operand modulo its right operand.</p>

<p>The result of any binary operator is either a numeric value or 

NULL, except for the <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>||</big></font> concatenation operator which always 
evaluates to either NULL or a text value.</p><a name="isisnot"></a>
<p>The <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>IS</big></font> and <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>IS NOT</big></font> operators work
like <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>=</big></font> and <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>!=</big></font> except when one or both of the
operands are NULL. In this case, if both operands are NULL, then the

IS operator evaluates to 1 (true) and the IS NOT operator evaluates
to 0 (false). If one operand is NULL and the other is not, then the
IS operator evaluates to 0 (false) and the IS NOT operator is 1 (true).

It is not possible for an IS or IS NOT expression to evaluate to NULL.
Operators <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>IS</big></font> and <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>IS NOT</big></font> have the same 
precedence as <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>=</big></font>.<a name="litvalue"></a>


<h3>Literal Values</h3>
<p>
A literal value is a constant of some kind.
Literal values may be integers, floating point numbers, strings,

BLOBs, or NULLs.</p>


<p>The syntax for integer and floating point literals (collectively
"numeric literals") is shown by the following diagram:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#numeric-literal">numeric-literal:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram numeric-literal" src="images/syntax/numeric-literal.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>


<p>
If a numeric literal has a decimal point or an exponentiation
clause, then it is a floating point literal.  Otherwise is it is an 
integer literal.  The "E" character that begins the exponentiation






clause of a floating point literal can be either upper or lower case.






The "." character is always used 
as the decimal point even if the locale setting specifies "," for
this role - the use of "," for the decimal point would result in
syntactic ambiguity.</p>

<p> A string constant is formed by enclosing the
string in single quotes (').  A single quote within the string can
be encoded by putting two single quotes in a row - as in Pascal.
C-style escapes using the backslash character are not supported because
they are not standard SQL.
BLOB literals are string literals containing hexadecimal data and
preceded by a single "x" or "X" character.  For example:</p>

<blockquote><pre>
X'53514C697465'
</pre></blockquote>

<p>


A literal value can also be the token "NULL".


</p>


<a name="varparam"></a>


<h3>Parameters</h3>
<p>

A "variable" or "parameter" token


specifies a placeholder in the expression for a 
value that is filled in at runtime using the
<a href="c3ref/bind_blob.html">sqlite3_bind()</a> family of C/C++ interfaces.
Parameters can take several forms:
</p>



<blockquote>

<table>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b>?</b><i>NNN</i></td><td width="20"></td>
<td>A question mark followed by a number <i>NNN</i> holds a spot for the
NNN-th parameter.  NNN must be between 1 and <a href="limits.html#max_variable_number">SQLITE_MAX_VARIABLE_NUMBER</a>.




</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b>?</b></td><td width="20"></td>



<td>A question mark that is not followed by a number creates a parameter
with a number one greater than the largest parameter number already assigned.
If this means the parameter number is greater than
<a href="limits.html#max_variable_number">SQLITE_MAX_VARIABLE_NUMBER</a>, it is an error.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b>:</b><i>AAAA</i></td><td width="20"></td>
<td>A colon followed by an identifier name holds a spot for a 
<a href="c3ref/bind_parameter_name.html">named parameter</a> with the name :AAAA.  
Named parameters are also numbered. The number assigned is one greater than
the largest parameter number already assigned. If this means the parameter
would be assigned a number greater than <a href="limits.html#max_variable_number">SQLITE_MAX_VARIABLE_NUMBER</a>, it is
an error. To avoid confusion, it is best to avoid mixing named and numbered


parameters.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b>@</b><i>AAAA</i></td><td width="20"></td>
<td>An "at" sign works exactly like a colon, except that the name of


the parameter created is @AAAA.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right" valign="top"><b>$</b><i>AAAA</i></td><td width="20"></td>
<td>A dollar-sign followed by an identifier name also holds a spot for a named
parameter with the name $AAAA.  The identifier name in this case can include
one or more occurrences of "::" and a suffix enclosed in "(...)" containing
any text at all.  This syntax is the form of a variable name in the
<a href="http://www.tcl.tk/">Tcl programming language</a>.  The presence
of this syntax results from the fact that SQLite is really a 
<a href="tclsqlite.html">Tcl extension</a> that has escaped into the wild.</td>
</tr>





</table>
</blockquote>


<p>Parameters that are not assigned values using


<a href="c3ref/bind_blob.html">sqlite3_bind()</a> are treated
as NULL.</p>


<p>The maximum parameter number is set at compile-time by
the <a href="limits.html#max_variable_number">SQLITE_MAX_VARIABLE_NUMBER</a> macro.  An individual <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connections</a>
D can reduce its maximum parameter number below the compile-time maximum
using the <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit</a>(D, <a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitvariablenumber">SQLITE_LIMIT_VARIABLE_NUMBER</a>,...) interface.
</p>


<a name="like"></a>

<h3>The LIKE and GLOB operators</h3>
<p>The LIKE operator does a pattern matching comparison. The operand
to the right of the LIKE operator contains the pattern and the left hand
operand contains the string to match against the pattern.

A percent symbol ("%") in the LIKE pattern matches any
sequence of zero or more characters in the string.  An underscore
("_") in the LIKE pattern matches any single character in the
string.  Any other character matches itself or its lower/upper case
equivalent (i.e. case-insensitive matching).  (A bug: SQLite only
understands upper/lower case for ASCII characters by default.  The
LIKE operator is case sensitive by default for unicode characters that are
beyond the ASCII range.  For example,
the expression <b>'a'&nbsp;LIKE&nbsp;'A'</b>
is TRUE but <b>'&aelig;'&nbsp;LIKE&nbsp;'&AElig;'</b> is FALSE.)<p>





<p>If the optional ESCAPE clause is present, then the expression
following the ESCAPE keyword must evaluate to a string consisting of
a single character. This character may be used in the LIKE pattern
to include literal percent or underscore characters. The escape
character followed by a percent symbol (%), underscore (_), or a second
instance of the escape character itself matches a
literal percent symbol, underscore, or a single escape character,
respectively.


<p>The infix LIKE operator is implemented by calling the



application-defined SQL functions <a href="lang_corefunc.html#like">like(<i>Y</i>,<i>X</i>)</a> or
<a href="lang_corefunc.html#like">like(<i>Y</i>,<i>X</i>,<i>Z</i>)</a></a>.</p>

<p>The LIKE operator can be made case sensitive using the
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_case_sensitive_like">case_sensitive_like pragma</a>.</p>


<a name="glob"></a>









<p>The GLOB operator is similar to LIKE but uses the Unix
file globbing syntax for its wildcards.  Also, GLOB is case
sensitive, unlike LIKE.  Both GLOB and LIKE may be preceded by
the NOT keyword to invert the sense of the test.  The infix GLOB 
operator is implemented by calling the function
<a href="lang_corefunc.html#glob">glob(<i>Y</i>,<i>X</i>)</a> and can be modified by overriding
that function.</p>



<a name="regexp"></a>

<p>The REGEXP operator is a special syntax for the regexp()
user function.  No regexp() user function is defined by default
and so use of the REGEXP operator will normally result in an
error message.  If an <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">application-defined SQL function</a> named "regexp"
is added at run-time, then the "<i>X</i> REGEXP <i>Y</i>" operator will

be implemented as a call to "regexp(<i>Y</i>,<i>X</i>)".</p>



<a name="match"></a>



<p>The MATCH operator is a special syntax for the match()
application-defined function.  The default match() function implementation


raises an exception and is not really useful for anything.
But extensions can override the match() function with more
helpful logic.</p>

<a name="between"></a>

<h3>The BETWEEN operator</h3>
<p>The BETWEEN operator is logically equivalent to a pair of comparisons.
"<i>x</i> <b>BETWEEN</b> <i>y</i> <b>AND</b> <i>z</i>" is 
equivalent to 

"<i>x</i><b>&gt;=</b><i>y</i> <b>AND</b> <i>x</i><b>&lt;=</b><i>z</i>" except
that with BETWEEN, the <i>x</i> expression is only evaluated once.




The precedence of the BETWEEN operator is the same as the precedence
as operators <b>==</b> and <b>!=</b> and <b>LIKE</b> and groups left to right.

<a name="case"></a>




<h3>The CASE expression</h3>



<p>A CASE expression serves a role similar to IF-THEN-ELSE in other
programming languages.  

<p>The optional expression that occurs in between the CASE keyword and the


first WHEN keyword is called the "base" expression. There are two basic forms
of the CASE expression: those with a base expression and those without.

<p>In a CASE without a base expression, each WHEN expression is evaluated
and the result treated as a boolean, starting with the leftmost and continuing
to the right. The result of the CASE expression is the evaluation of the THEN
expression that corresponds to the first WHEN expression that evaluates to
true. Or, if none of the WHEN expressions evaluate to true, the result of
evaluating the ELSE expression, if any. If there is no ELSE expression and
none of the WHEN expressions are true, then the overall result is NULL.

<p>A NULL result is considered untrue when evaluating WHEN terms.

<p>In a CASE with a base expression, the base expression is evaluated just
once and the result is compared against the evaluation of each WHEN 
expression from left to right. The result of the CASE expression is the 
evaluation of the THEN expression that corresponds to the first WHEN
expression for which the comparison is true. Or, if none of the WHEN
expressions evaluate to a value equal to the base expression, the result
of evaluating the ELSE expression, if any. If there is no ELSE expression and
none of the WHEN expressions produce a result equal to the base expression,
the overall result is NULL.









<p>When comparing a base expression against a WHEN expression, the same
collating sequence, affinity, and NULL-handling rules apply as if the
base expression and WHEN expression are respectively the left- and
right-hand operands of an <big><b>=</b></big> operator.</p> If the base 
expression is NULL then the result of the CASE is always the result 
of evaluating the ELSE expression if it exists, or NULL if it does not.

<p>Both forms of the CASE expression use lazy, or short-circuit, 
evaluation.

<p>The only difference between the following two CASE expressions is that 
the <i>x</i> expression is evaluated exactly once in the first example but 
might be evaluated multiple times in the second:

<ul><pre>
<li>CASE x WHEN w1 THEN r1 WHEN w2 THEN r2 ELSE r3 END
<li>CASE WHEN x=w1 THEN r1 WHEN x=w2 THEN r2 ELSE r3 END





</pre></ul>



<a name="in_op"></a>

<h3>The IN and NOT IN operators</h3>
<p>The IN and NOT IN operators take a single scalar operand on the
left and a vector operand on the right
formed by an explicit list of zero or more scalars or by a 
single subquery.
When the right operand of an IN or NOT IN operator is a subquery, the
subquery must have a single result column.
When the right operand is an empty set, the result of IN is false and the
result of NOT IN is true, regardless of the left operand and even if the
left operand is NULL.
The result of an IN or NOT IN operator is determined by the following
matrix:

<center>
<table border=1>



<tr>
<th>Left operand <br>is NULL
<th>Right operand <br>contains NULL
<th>Right operand <br>is an empty set

<th>Left operand found <br>within right operand
<th>Result of <br>IN operator
<th>Result of <br>NOT IN operator
<tr>
<td align="center">no











<td align="center">no
<td align="center">no
<td align="center">no
<td align="center">false
<td align="center">true
<tr>
<td align="center">does not matter
<td align="center">no
<td align="center">yes
<td align="center">no

<td align="center">false
<td align="center">true
<tr>
<td align="center">no

<td align="center">does not matter
<td align="center">no

<td align="center">yes
<td align="center">true
<td align="center">false
<tr>
<td align="center">no

<td align="center">yes


<td align="center">no
<td align="center">no

<td align="center">NULL

<td align="center">NULL

<tr>
<td align="center">yes

<td align="center">does not matter



<td align="center">no


<td align="center">does not matter




<td align="center">NULL

<td align="center">NULL


</table>
</center>

<p>Note that SQLite allows the parenthesized list of scalar values on
the right-hand side of an IN or NOT IN operator to be an empty list but
most other SQL database database engines and the SQL92 standard require
the list to contain at least one element.</p>

<a name="in_op"></a>

<h3>The EXISTS operator</h3>

<p>The EXISTS operator always evaluates to one of the integer values 0 
and 1. If executing the SELECT statement specified as the right-hand 
operand of the EXISTS operator would return one or more rows, then the
EXISTS operator evaluates to 1. If executing the SELECT would return
no rows at all, then the EXISTS operator evaluates to 0. 

<p>The number of columns in each row returned by the SELECT statement
(if any) and the specific values returned have no effect on the results
of the EXISTS operator. In particular, rows containing NULL values are
not handled any differently from rows without NULL values.


<h3>Scalar Subqueries</h3>

<p>A <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statement enclosed in parentheses may appear as a scalar
quantity. A <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> used as a scalar quantity must return a result set
with a single column. The result of the expression is the value of the
only column in the first row returned by the SELECT statement. If the SELECT 
yields more than one result row, all rows after the first are ignored. If
the SELECT yields no rows, then the value of the expression is NULL.
The LIMIT of a scalar subquery is always 1.
Any other LIMIT value given in the SQL text is ignored.

<p>All types of <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statement, including aggregate and <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>
queries (queries with keywords like UNION or EXCEPT) are allowed as scalar



subqueries.


<h3>Table Column Names</h3>



<p>A column name can be any of the names defined in the <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a>
statement or one of the following special identifiers: "<b>ROWID</b>",

"<b>OID</b>", or "<b>_ROWID_</b>".
These special identifiers all describe the
unique integer key (the <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">rowid</a>) associated with every 
row of every table.
The special identifiers only refer to the row key if the <a href="lang_createtable.html">CREATE TABLE</a>

statement does not define a real column with the same name.




The rowid can be used anywhere a regular
column can be used.</p>

<p>A <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statement used as either a scalar subquery or as the 
right-hand operand of an IN, NOT IN or EXISTS expression may contain 
references to columns in the outer query. Such a subquery is known as
a correlated subquery. A correlated subquery is reevaluated each time
its result is required. An uncorrelated subquery is evaluated only once
and the result reused as necessary.


<a name="castexpr"></a>





<h3>CAST expressions</h3>


<p>A CAST expression of the form "CAST(&lt;expr&gt; AS &lt;type-name&gt;)"
is used to convert the value of &lt;expr&gt; to 
a different <a href="datatype3.html#storageclasses">storage class</a> specified by &lt;type-name&gt;.
A CAST conversion is similar to the conversion that takes
place when a <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">column affinity</a> is applied to a value except that with
the CAST operator the conversion always takes place even if the conversion
lossy and irreversible, whereas column affinity only changes the data type
of a value if the change is lossless and reversible.

<p>If the value of &lt;expr&gt; is NULL, then the result of the CAST
expression is also NULL. Otherwise, the storage class of the result
is determined by applying the <a href="datatype3.html#affname">rules for determining column affinity</a> to
the &lt;type-name&gt;.

<table border=1>
<tr>


  <th> Affinity of &lt;type-name&gt;
  <th> Conversion Processing



<tr>

  <td> NONE 



  <td> Casting a value to a &lt;type-name&gt; with no affinity causes the value to
  be converted into a BLOB.  Casting to a BLOB consists of first casting
  the value to TEXT in the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_encoding">encoding</a> of the database connection, then
  interpreting the resulting byte sequence as a BLOB instead of as TEXT.









<tr>

  <td> TEXT


  <td> To cast a BLOB value to TEXT, the sequence of bytes that make up the
  BLOB is interpreted as text encoded using the database encoding.

  <p>
   Casting an INTEGER or REAL value into TEXT renders the value as if via 
    <a href="c3ref/mprintf.html">sqlite3_snprintf()</a> except that the resulting TEXT uses the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_encoding">encoding</a> of
    the database connection.



<tr>


  <td> REAL
  <td> When casting a BLOB value to a REAL, the value is first converted to
        TEXT.
       <p>When casting a TEXT value to REAL, the longest possible prefix of

        the value that can be interpreted as a real number is extracted from
        the TEXT value and the remainder ignored. Any leading spaces in the
        TEXT value are ignored when converging from TEXT to REAL. If there is
        no prefix that can be interpreted as a real number, the result of the
        conversion is 0.0.


<tr>
  <td> INTEGER
  <td> When casting a BLOB value to INTEGER, the value is first converted to
        TEXT.
       <p>When casting a TEXT value to INTEGER, the longest possible prefix of
        the value that can be interpreted as an integer number is extracted from
        the TEXT value and the remainder ignored. Any leading spaces in the
        TEXT value when converting from TEXT to INTEGER are ignored. If there
        is no prefix that can be interpreted as an integer number, the result
        of the conversion is 0.

      <p>A cast of a REAL value into an INTEGER results in the integer
      between the REAL value and zero that is closest to the REAL value.
      If a REAL is greater than the greatest possible signed
      integer (+9223372036854775807) then the result is the greatest possible
      signed integer and if the REAL is less than the least possible signed
      integer (-9223372036854775808) then the result is the least possible
      signed integer.

      <p>Prior to SQLite version 3.8.2, casting a REAL value greater than
      +9223372036854775807.0 into an integer resulted in the most negative
      integer, -9223372036854775808.  This behavior was meant to emulate the
      behavior of x86/x64 hardware when doing the equivalent cast.


<tr>


  <td> NUMERIC
  <td> Casting a TEXT or BLOB value into NUMERIC first does a forced


   conversion into REAL but then further converts the result into INTEGER if
   and only if the conversion from REAL to INTEGER is lossless and reversible.
   This is the only context in SQLite where the NUMERIC and INTEGER <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinities</a>
   behave differently.
   <p> Casting a REAL or INTEGER value to NUMERIC is a no-op, even if a real
   value could be losslessly converted to an integer.






</tr>





</table>

<p>Note that the result from casting any non-BLOB value into a 
BLOB and the result from casting any BLOB value into a non-BLOB value
may be different depending on whether the database <a href="pragma.html#pragma_encoding">encoding</a> is UTF-8,
UTF-16be, or UTF-16le.


<a name="booleanexpr"></a>

<h3>Boolean Expressions</h3>

<p>The SQL language features several contexts where an expression is 
evaluated and the result converted to a boolean (true or false) value. These
contexts are:

  <ul>
    <li> the WHERE clause of a SELECT, UPDATE or DELETE statement,
    <li> the ON or USING clause of a join in a SELECT statement,
    <li> the HAVING clause of a SELECT statement,
    <li> the WHEN clause of an SQL trigger, and
    <li> the WHEN clause or clauses of some CASE expressions.


  </ul>


<p>To convert the results of an SQL expression to a boolean value, SQLite
first casts the result to a NUMERIC value in the same way as a 
<a href="lang_expr.html#castexpr">CAST expression</a>. A NULL or zero value (integer value 0 or real value 0.0) is
considered to be false. All other values are considered true.

<p>For example, the values NULL, 0.0, 0, 'english' and '0' are all considered
to be false. Values 1, 1.0, 0.1, -0.1 and '1english' are considered to 
be true.



<h3>Functions</h3>



<p>Both <a href="lang_corefunc.html">simple</a> and <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate</a> functions are supported.
(For presentation purposes, simple functions are further subdivided into
<a href="lang_corefunc.html">core functions</a> and <a href="lang_datefunc.html">date-time functions</a>.)
A simple function can be used in any expression.  Simple functions return
a result immediately based on their inputs.  Aggregate functions
may only be used in a SELECT statement.  Aggregate functions compute
their result across all rows of the result set.</p>
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_indexedby.html. 














































































































































































































































































































































































































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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>INDEXED BY</h2>
<p>The INDEXED BY phrase forces the <a href="optoverview.html">SQLite query planner</a> to use a
particular named index on a <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>, or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statement.
The INDEXED BY phrase is an extension that is particular to SQLite and
is not portable to other SQL database engines.
The INDEXED BY phrase can be seen in the following syntax
diagrams:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1417' onclick='hideorshow("x1417","x1418")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1418'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram qualified-table-name" src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The "INDEXED BY index-name" phrase specifies that the named index
must be used in order to look up values on the preceding table.
If index-name does not exist or cannot be used for the query, then
the preparation of the SQL statement fails.
The "NOT INDEXED" clause specifies that no index shall be used when
accessing the preceding table, including implied indices create by
UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints.  However, the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY
can still be used to look up entries even when "NOT INDEXED" is specified.</p>

<p>Some SQL database engines provide non-standard "hint" mechanisms which
can be used to give the query optimizer clues about what indices it should
use for a particular statement.  The INDEX BY clause of SQLite is 
<em>not</em> a hinting mechanism and it should not be used as such.
The INDEXED BY clause does not give the optimizer hints about which index
to use; it gives the optimizer a requirement of which index to use.
If the query optimizer is unable to use the index specified by the
INDEX BY clause, then the query will fail with an error.</p>

<p>The INDEXED BY clause is <em>not</em> intended for use in tuning
the performance of a query.  The intent of the INDEXED BY clause is
to raise a run-time error if a schema change, such as dropping or
creating an index, causes the query plan for a time-sensitive query
to change.  The INDEXED BY clause is designed to help detect
undesirable query plan changes during regression testing.
Developers are admonished to omit all use of INDEXED BY during
application design, implementation, testing, and tuning.  If
INDEXED BY is to be used at all, it should be inserted at the very
end of the development process when "locking down" a design.</p>

<h3>See Also:</h3>

<ol>
<li><p>The <a href="queryplanner-ng.html#howtofix">query planner checklist</a> describes steps that application
developers should following to help resolve query planner problems.
Notice the that the use of INDEXED BY is a last resort, to be used only
when all other measures fail.</p>

<li><p><a href="optoverview.html#uplus">The unary "+" operator</a>
can be used to disqualify terms in the WHERE clause from use by indices.
Careful use of unary + can sometimes help prevent the query planner from
choosing a poor index without restricting it to using one specific index.
Careful placement of unary + operators is a better method for controlling 
which indices are used by a query.</p>

<li><p>The <a href="c3ref/stmt_status.html">sqlite3_stmt_status()</a> C/C++ interface together with the
<a href="c3ref/c_stmtstatus_counter.html#sqlitestmtstatusfullscanstep">SQLITE_STMTSTATUS_FULLSCAN_STEP</a> and <a href="c3ref/c_stmtstatus_counter.html#sqlitestmtstatussort">SQLITE_STMTSTATUS_SORT</a> verbs
can be used to detect at run-time when an SQL statement is not
making effective use of indices.  Many applications may prefer to
use the <a href="c3ref/stmt_status.html">sqlite3_stmt_status()</a> interface to detect index misuse
rather than the INDEXED BY phrase described here.</p>
</ol>

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            <span id="runningHeaderText">INSERT</span>&nbsp;</td>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        INSERT</h4>



      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">INSERT </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">OR </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-algorithm</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> INTO </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              [<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>(</big></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"><big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> VALUES<big>(</big></font></b><i><font
                  color="#ff3434">value-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>)</big> </font>
                  </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    INSERT </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">OR </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                      conflict-algorithm</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                        INTO </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                          color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>




















              [<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>(</big></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"><big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font
                  color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>

          </tr>








        </table>




      </p>
      <p>
        The INSERT statement comes in two basic forms. The first form (with the "VALUES"
        keyword) creates a single new row in an existing table. If no column-list is specified
        then the number of values must be the same as the number of columns in the table.
        If a column-list is specified, then the number of values must match the number of
        specified columns. Columns of the table that do not appear in the column list are
        filled with the default value, or with NULL if not default value is specified.



























      </p>
      <p>
        The second form of the INSERT statement takes it data


        from a SELECT statement. The


        number of columns in the result of the SELECT must exactly match the number of columns




        in the table if no column list is specified, or it must match the number of columns







        name in the column list. A new entry is made in the table for every row of the SELECT







        result. The SELECT may be simple or compound. If the SELECT statement has an ORDER





        BY clause, the ORDER BY is ignored.</p>

      <p>
        The optional conflict-clause allows the specification of an alternative constraint conflict resolution algorithm to use during this one command. See the section titled


        <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information. For compatibility
        with MySQL, the parser allows the use of the single keyword <a href="lang_replace.html">

          REPLACE</a> as an alias for "INSERT OR REPLACE".
      </p>
      <p>





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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>INSERT</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#insert-stmt">insert-stmt:</a></b>


<button id='x1083' onclick='hideorshow("x1083","x1084")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1084'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram insert-stmt" src="images/syntax/insert-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>






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 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
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 <blockquote id='x1088' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1089' onclick='hideorshow("x1089","x1090")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1090' style='display:none;'>
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<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
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 <blockquote id='x1092' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
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 <blockquote id='x1094' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1095' onclick='hideorshow("x1095","x1096")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1096' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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 <blockquote id='x1098' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1099' onclick='hideorshow("x1099","x1100")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1100' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1101' onclick='hideorshow("x1101","x1102")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1102' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1103' onclick='hideorshow("x1103","x1104")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1104' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1105' onclick='hideorshow("x1105","x1106")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1106' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>






<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1107' onclick='hideorshow("x1107","x1108")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1108' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1109' onclick='hideorshow("x1109","x1110")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1110' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1111' onclick='hideorshow("x1111","x1112")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1112' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1113' onclick='hideorshow("x1113","x1114")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1114' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1115' onclick='hideorshow("x1115","x1116")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1116' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>The INSERT statement comes in three basic forms.  
<ul>
<li><p>The first form (with the "VALUES" keyword) creates one or more
new rows in
an existing table. If no column-list is specified then the number
of values inserted into each row
must be the same as the number of columns in the table. In this case
the result of evaluating the left-most expression in each term of
the VALUES list is inserted into the left-most column of the each new row,
and forth for each subsequent expression. If a
column-list is specified, then the number of values in each term of the
VALUE list must match the number of
specified columns. Each of the named columns of the new row is populated
with the results of evaluating the corresponding VALUES expression. Table
columns that do not appear in the column list are populated with the default
column value (specified as part of the CREATE TABLE statement), or with NULL if
no default value is specified.

<li><p>The second form of the INSERT statement contains a SELECT statement
instead of a VALUES clause. A new entry is inserted into the table for each
row of data returned by executing the SELECT statement. If a column-list is
specified, the number of columns in the result of the SELECT must be the same
as the number of items in the column-list. Otherwise, if no column-list is
specified, the number of columns in the result of the SELECT must be the same
as the number of columns in the table. Any SELECT statement, including
<a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECTs</a> and SELECT statements with <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> and/or <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a> clauses, 
may be used in an INSERT statement of this form.

<li><p>The third form of an INSERT statement is with DEFAULT VALUES.
The INSERT ... DEFAULT VALUES statement inserts a single new row into the
named table. Each column of the new row is populated with its default value,
or with a NULL if no default value is specified as part of the column
definition in the CREATE TABLE statement.

</ul>

<p>The optional conflict-clause allows the specification of an alternative
constraint conflict resolution algorithm to use during this one INSERT command.
See the section titled
<a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.
For compatibility with MySQL, the parser allows the use of the
single keyword <a href="lang_replace.html">REPLACE</a> as an 
alias for "INSERT OR REPLACE".


<p>The optional "<i>database-name</i><b>.</b>" prefix on the <i>table-name</i>
is support for top-level INSERT statements only.  The table name must be
unqualified for INSERT statements that occur within <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a> statements.
Similarly, the "DEFAULT VALUES" form of the INSERT statement is supported for
top-level INSERT statements only and not for INSERT statements within
triggers.


<p>
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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html><head>
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<title>SQLite Query Language: SQLite Keywords</title>
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<div class=startsearch></div>
  
<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>SQLite Keywords</h2></DIV>

<p>The SQL standard specifies a huge number of keywords which may not
be used as the names of tables, indices, columns, databases, user-defined
functions, collations, virtual table modules, or any other named object.
The list of keywords is so long that few people can remember them all.
For most SQL code, your safest bet is to never use any English language
word as the name of a user-defined object.</p>

<p>If you want to use a keyword as a name, you need to quote it.  There
are four ways of quoting keywords in SQLite:</p>

<p>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>	<td valign="top"><b>'keyword'</b></td><td width="20"></td>
	<td>A keyword in single quotes is a string literal.</td></tr>

<tr>	<td valign="top"><b>"keyword"</b></td><td></td>
	<td>A keyword in double-quotes is an identifier.</td></tr>

<tr>	<td valign="top"><b>&#91;keyword&#93;</b></td><td></td>
	<td>A keyword enclosed in square brackets is 
        an identifier.  This is not standard SQL.  This quoting mechanism
        is used by MS Access and SQL Server and is included in SQLite for
        compatibility.</td></tr>

<tr>	<td valign="top"><b>&#96;keyword&#96;</b></td><td></td>
	<td>A keyword enclosed in grave accents (ASCII code 96) is 
        an identifier.  This is not standard SQL.  This quoting mechanism
        is used by MySQL and is included in SQLite for
        compatibility.</td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
</p>

<p>For resilience when confronted with historical SQL statements, SQLite
will sometimes bend the quoting rules above:</p>

<ul>
<li><p>If a keyword in single
quotes (ex: <b>'key'</b> or <b>'glob'</b>) is used in a context where
an identifier is allowed but where a string literal is not allowed, then
the token is understood to be an identifier instead of a string literal.
</p></li>

<li><p>If a keyword in double
quotes (ex: <b>"key"</b> or <b>"glob"</b>) is used in a context where
it cannot be resolved to an identifier but where a string literal
is allowed, then the token is understood to be a string literal instead
of an identifier.</p></li>
</ul>

<p>Programmers are cautioned not to use the two exceptions described in
the previous bullets.  We emphasize that they exist only so that old
and ill-formed SQL statements will run correctly.  Future versions of
SQLite might raise errors instead of accepting the malformed
statements covered by the exceptions above.</p>

<p>
SQLite adds new keywords from time to time when it takes on new features.
So to prevent your code from being broken by future enhancements, you should
normally quote any identifier that is an English language word, even if
you do not have to.
</p>

<p>
The list below shows all possible keywords used by any build of
SQLite regardless of <a href="compile.html">compile-time options</a>.  
Most reasonable configurations use most or all of these keywords,
but some keywords may be omitted when SQL language features are
disabled.
Regardless of the compile-time configuration, any identifier that is not on
the following 124 element
list is not a keyword to the SQL parser in SQLite:
</p>

<blockquote>
<table width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left" valign="top" width="20%">
ABORT<br>
ACTION<br>
ADD<br>
AFTER<br>
ALL<br>
ALTER<br>
ANALYZE<br>
AND<br>
AS<br>
ASC<br>
ATTACH<br>
AUTOINCREMENT<br>
BEFORE<br>
BEGIN<br>
BETWEEN<br>
BY<br>
CASCADE<br>
CASE<br>
CAST<br>
CHECK<br>
COLLATE<br>
COLUMN<br>
COMMIT<br>
CONFLICT<br>
CONSTRAINT<br>
</td><td valign="top" align="left" width="20%">CREATE<br>
CROSS<br>
CURRENT_DATE<br>
CURRENT_TIME<br>
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP<br>
DATABASE<br>
DEFAULT<br>
DEFERRABLE<br>
DEFERRED<br>
DELETE<br>
DESC<br>
DETACH<br>
DISTINCT<br>
DROP<br>
EACH<br>
ELSE<br>
END<br>
ESCAPE<br>
EXCEPT<br>
EXCLUSIVE<br>
EXISTS<br>
EXPLAIN<br>
FAIL<br>
FOR<br>
FOREIGN<br>
</td><td valign="top" align="left" width="20%">FROM<br>
FULL<br>
GLOB<br>
GROUP<br>
HAVING<br>
IF<br>
IGNORE<br>
IMMEDIATE<br>
IN<br>
INDEX<br>
INDEXED<br>
INITIALLY<br>
INNER<br>
INSERT<br>
INSTEAD<br>
INTERSECT<br>
INTO<br>
IS<br>
ISNULL<br>
JOIN<br>
KEY<br>
LEFT<br>
LIKE<br>
LIMIT<br>
MATCH<br>
</td><td valign="top" align="left" width="20%">NATURAL<br>
NO<br>
NOT<br>
NOTNULL<br>
NULL<br>
OF<br>
OFFSET<br>
ON<br>
OR<br>
ORDER<br>
OUTER<br>
PLAN<br>
PRAGMA<br>
PRIMARY<br>
QUERY<br>
RAISE<br>
RECURSIVE<br>
REFERENCES<br>
REGEXP<br>
REINDEX<br>
RELEASE<br>
RENAME<br>
REPLACE<br>
RESTRICT<br>
RIGHT<br>
</td><td valign="top" align="left" width="20%">ROLLBACK<br>
ROW<br>
SAVEPOINT<br>
SELECT<br>
SET<br>
TABLE<br>
TEMP<br>
TEMPORARY<br>
THEN<br>
TO<br>
TRANSACTION<br>
TRIGGER<br>
UNION<br>
UNIQUE<br>
UPDATE<br>
USING<br>
VACUUM<br>
VALUES<br>
VIEW<br>
VIRTUAL<br>
WHEN<br>
WHERE<br>
WITH<br>
WITHOUT<br>

</td></tr></table></blockquote>
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_naming.html. 




































































































































































































































































































































































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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>Database Object Name Resolution</h2>

<p>
  In SQLite, a database object (a table, index, trigger or view) is identified
  by the name of the object and the name of the database that it resides in. 
  Database objects may reside in the main database, the temp database, or in
  an <a href="lang_attach.html">attached database</a>.

<p>
  The syntax of the <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a>, <a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a>, <a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a>, <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a>,
  <a href="lang_reindex.html">REINDEX</a>, <a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a> and many other commands all permit the user to
  specify a database object either by its name alone, or by a combination of
  its name and the name of its database. If no database is specified as part
  of the object reference, then SQLite searches the main, temp and all attached
  databases for an object with a matching name. The temp database is searched
  first, followed by the main database, followed all attached databases in the
  order that they were attached. The reference resolves to the first match
  found. For example:

<pre>
      /* Add a table named 't1' to the temp, main and an attached database */
      ATTACH 'file.db' AS aux;
      CREATE TABLE t1(x, y);
      CREATE TEMP TABLE t1(x, y);
      CREATE TABLE aux.t1(x, y);

      DROP TABLE t1;         /* Drop table in temp database */
      DROP TABLE t1;         /* Drop table in main database */
      DROP TABLE t1;         /* Drop table in aux database */
</pre>

<p>
  If a database name is specified as part of an object reference, it must be
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  is specified, then only the named database is searched for the named object.

<p>
  Most object references may only resolve to a specific type of object (for
  example a reference that is part of a DROP TABLE statement may only resolve
  to a table object, not an index, trigger or view). However in some contexts 
  (e.g. <a href="lang_reindex.html">REINDEX</a>) an object reference may be resolve to more than one type
  of object. When searching database schemas for a named object, objects of
  types that cannot be used in the context of the reference are always 
  ignored.
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_reindex.html. 
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        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        REINDEX</h4>


      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">REINDEX </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">collation
        name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">REINDEX </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table/index-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>








        The REINDEX command is used to delete and recreate indices from scratch. This is






        useful when the definition of a collation sequence has changed.











      </p>
      <p>








        In the first form, all indices in all attached databases that use the named collation

        sequence are recreated. In the second form, if <i>[database-name.]table/index-name</i>





        identifies a table, then all indices associated with the table are rebuilt. If an
        index is identified, then only this specific index is deleted and recreated.


      </p>
      <p>











        If no <i>database-name</i> is specified and there exists both a table or index and
        a collation sequence of the specified name, then indices associated with the collation

        sequence only are reconstructed. This ambiguity may be dispelled by always specifying
        a <i>database-name</i> when reindexing a specific table or index.
      </p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>REINDEX</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#reindex-stmt">reindex-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1119' onclick='hideorshow("x1119","x1120")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1120'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram reindex-stmt" src="images/syntax/reindex-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>The REINDEX command is used to delete and recreate indices from scratch.
This is useful when the definition of a collation sequence has changed.
</p>

<p>If the REINDEX keyword is not followed by a collation-sequence or database 
object identifier, then all indices in all attached databases are rebuilt.

<p>If the REINDEX keyword is followed by a collation-sequence name, then
all indices in all attached databases that use the named collation sequences
are recreated. 

<p>Or, if the argument attached to the REINDEX identifies a specific 
database table, then all indices attached to the database table are rebuilt. 
If it identifies a specific database index, then just that index is recreated.

<p>If no <i>database-name</i> is specified and there exists both a table or
index and a collation sequence of the specified name, SQLite interprets
this as a request to rebuild the indices that use the named collation sequence.
This ambiguity in the syntax may be avoided by always specifying a
<i>database-name</i> when reindexing a specific table or index.
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_replace.html. 
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>





        REPLACE</h4>
      <p>









        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">REPLACE INTO </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font





                    color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>(</big> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> VALUES <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">value-list</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    REPLACE INTO </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              [<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-list</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">select-statement</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>

          </tr>
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      </p>

      <p>



        The REPLACE command is an alias for the "INSERT OR REPLACE" variant of the <a href="lang_insert.html">
          INSERT</a> command. This alias is provided for compatibility with MySQL. See the
        <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> command documentation for additional information.</p>
      <p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>REPLACE</h2>

<p>The REPLACE command is an alias for the "<a href="lang_conflict.html">INSERT OR REPLACE</a>"
variant of the <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> command.  
This alias is provided for compatibility other SQL database engines.  See the 
<a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> command documentation for additional information.</p>
Added Doc/Extra/Core/lang_savepoint.html. 










































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>SAVEPOINT</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#savepoint-stmt">savepoint-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x803' onclick='hideorshow("x803","x804")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x804'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram savepoint-stmt" src="images/syntax/savepoint-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p> SAVEPOINTs are a method of creating transactions, similar to
<a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a> and <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a>, except that the SAVEPOINT and RELEASE commands
are named and may be nested.</p>

<p> The SAVEPOINT command starts a new transaction with a name.
The transaction names need not be unique.
A SAVEPOINT can be started either within or outside of
a <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a>...<a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a>.  When a SAVEPOINT is the outer-most savepoint
and it is not within a <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a>...<a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> then the behavior is the
same as BEGIN DEFERRED TRANSACTION.</p>

<p>The ROLLBACK TO command reverts the state of the database back to what
it was just after the corresponding SAVEPOINT.  Note that unlike that
plain <a href="lang_transaction.html">ROLLBACK</a> command (without the TO keyword) the ROLLBACK TO command
does not cancel the transaction.  Instead of cancelling the transaction,
the ROLLBACK TO command restarts the transaction again at the beginning.
All intervening SAVEPOINTs are canceled, however.</p>

<p>The RELEASE command is like a <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> for a SAVEPOINT.
The RELEASE command causes all savepoints back to and including the 
most recent savepoint with a matching name to be removed from the 
transaction stack.  The RELEASE of an inner transaction
does not cause any changes to be written to the database file; it merely
removes savepoints from the transaction stack such that it is
no longer possible to ROLLBACK TO those savepoints.
If a RELEASE command releases the outermost savepoint, so
that the transaction stack becomes empty, then RELEASE is the same
as <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a>.
The <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> command may be used to release all savepoints and
commit the transaction even if the transaction was originally started
by a SAVEPOINT command instead of a <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a> command.</p>

<p>If the savepoint-name in a RELEASE command does not match any
savepoint currently in the transaction stack, then no savepoints are
released, the database is unchanged, and the RELEASE command returns
an error.</p>

<p>Note that an inner transaction might commit (using the RELEASE command)
but then later have its work undone by a ROLLBACK in an outer transaction.
A power failure or program crash or OS crash will cause the outer-most
transaction to rollback, undoing all changes that have occurred within
that outer transaction, even changes that have supposedly been "committed"
by the RELEASE command.  Content is not actually committed on the disk 
until the outermost transaction commits.</p>

<p>There are several ways of thinking about the RELEASE command:</p>

<ul>
<li><p>
Some people view RELEASE as the equivalent of COMMIT for a SAVEPOINT.
This is an acceptable point of view as long as one remembers that the
changes committed by an inner transaction might later be undone by a
rollback in an outer transaction.</p></li>

<li><p>
Another view of RELEASE is that it merges a named transaction into its
parent transaction, so that the named transaction and its parent become
the same transaction.  After RELEASE, the named transaction and its parent
will commit or rollback together, whatever their fate may be.
</p></li>

<li><p>
One can also think of savepoints as
"marks" in the transaction timeline.  In this view, the SAVEPOINT command
creates a new mark, the ROLLBACK TO command rewinds the timeline back
to a point just after the named mark, and the RELEASE command
erases marks from the timeline without actually making any
changes to the database.
</p></li>
</ul>



<h3>Transaction Nesting Rules</h3>

<p>The last transaction started will be the first
transaction committed or rolled back.</p>

<p>The <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a> command only works if the transaction stack is empty, or
in other words if there are no pending transactions.  If the transaction
stack is not empty when the <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a> command is invoked, then the command
fails with an error.</p>

<p>The <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a> command commits all outstanding transactions and leaves
the transaction stack empty.</p>

<p>The RELEASE command starts with the most recent addition to the
transaction stack and releases savepoints backwards 
in time until it releases a savepoint with a matching savepoint-name.
Prior savepoints, even savepoints with matching savepoint-names, are
unchanged.
If the RELEASE command causes the
transaction stack to become empty (if the RELEASE command releases the
outermost transaction from the stack) then the transaction commits.</p>

<p>The <a href="lang_transaction.html">ROLLBACK</a> command without a TO clause rolls backs all transactions
and leaves the transaction stack empty.</p>

<p>The ROLLBACK command with a TO clause rolls back transactions going
backwards in time back to the most recent SAVEPOINT with a matching name.
The SAVEPOINT with the matching name remains on the transaction stack,
but all database changes that occurred after that SAVEPOINT was created
are rolled back.  If the savepoint-name in a ROLLBACK TO command does not
match any SAVEPOINT on the stack, then the ROLLBACK command fails with an
error and leaves the state of the database unchanged.</p>
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">SELECT</span>&nbsp;</td>


















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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>

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          <td>
            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>
            <a id="exampleSectionLink" href="#codeExampleToggle" onclick="OpenSection(codeExampleToggle)">Example</a>





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    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
      <h1 class="heading">




        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>





      <h4>




















        SELECT</h4>




      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">




          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>




            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">SELECT </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">ALL </font></b>
              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> DISTINCT</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
              </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">result</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
              </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">FROM </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-list</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">WHERE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                  </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">GROUP BY </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">


































                    expr-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">HAVING </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                      </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">compound-op</font></i><b><font
                        color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">select</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                          color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                          </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">ORDER BY </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                            sort-expr-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                            </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">LIMIT </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">integer</font></i><b><font
                              color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>(<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                                OFFSET </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>,</big> </font></b>
              )<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">integer</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
























































          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">result</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">result-column</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">result-column</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>

          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">result-column</font></i> ::=</td>






            <td>

              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>*</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">

              </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">



                <big>.</big> <big>*</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>













































                </b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>
              [<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">AS</font></b>]<b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">string</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table-list</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>

              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">join-op</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">join-args</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>







          </tr>








          <tr>








































            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">table</font></i> ::=</td>



            <td>




























              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">AS </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">


                  alias</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>














                  </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />





                    <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">select</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">


                      <big>)</big> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">AS </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                        alias</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>

            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">join-op</font></i> ::=</td>



            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
              </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">NATURAL</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
              </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">LEFT </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">






                RIGHT </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> FULL</font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">







                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">OUTER </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0">














                  INNER </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> CROSS</font></b>]<b><font





                    color="#2c2cf0"> JOIN</font></b></td>
          </tr>



          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>












              <i><font color="#ff3434">join-args</font></i> ::=</td>



            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">ON </font></b><i><font







                color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">USING <big>(</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                  id-list</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>)</big></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>







          </tr>
          <tr>




            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">sort-expr-list</font></i> ::=</td>















            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font

                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">sort-order</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big>

                  </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>





                  </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">sort-order</font></i><b><font










                    color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font


                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>





            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>




              <i><font color="#ff3434">sort-order</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>



              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> COLLATE </font></b>






              <i><font color="#ff3434">collation-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>




              </b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> ASC </font></b>








              <big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> DESC </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>





          </tr>











          <tr>







            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>






              <i><font color="#ff3434">compound_op</font></i> ::=</td>





            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">UNION </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> UNION


                ALL </font></b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> INTERSECT </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> EXCEPT</font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>








      </p>
      <p>

        The SELECT statement is used to query the database. The result of a SELECT is zero

        or more rows of data where each row has a fixed number of columns. The number of


        columns in the result is specified by the expression list in between the SELECT
        and FROM keywords. Any arbitrary expression can be used as a result. If a result




        expression is <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>*</big></font> then all columns of all


        tables are substituted for that one expression. If the expression is the name of
        a table followed by <font color="#2c2cf0"><big>.*</big></font> then the result is
























        all columns in that one table.</p>



      <p>
        The DISTINCT keyword causes a subset of result rows to be returned, in which each
        result row is different. NULL values are not treated as distinct from each other.
        The default behavior is that all result rows be returned, which can be made explicit




        with the keyword ALL.</p>











      <p>
        The query is executed against one or more tables specified after the FROM keyword.
        If multiple tables names are separated by commas, then the query is against the
        cross join of the various tables. The full SQL-92 join syntax can also be used to
        specify joins. A sub-query in parentheses may be substituted for any table name
        in the FROM clause. The entire FROM clause may be omitted, in which case the result
        is a single row consisting of the values of the expression list.






      </p>








      <p>
        The WHERE clause can be used to limit the number of rows over which the query operates.</p>




      <p>
        The GROUP BY clauses causes one or more rows of the result to be combined into a
        single row of output. This is especially useful when the result contains aggregate
        functions. The expressions in the GROUP BY clause do <em>not</em> have to be expressions
        that appear in the result. The HAVING clause is similar to WHERE except that HAVING











































        applies after grouping has occurred. The HAVING expression may refer to values,

























        even aggregate functions, that are not in the result.</p>
      <p>





        The ORDER BY clause causes the output rows to be sorted. The argument to ORDER BY









        is a list of expressions that are used as the key for the sort. The expressions








        do not have to be part of the result for a simple SELECT, but in a compound SELECT
        each sort expression must exactly match one of the result columns. Each sort expression



        may be optionally followed by a COLLATE keyword and the name of a collating function
        used for ordering text and/or keywords ASC or DESC to specify the sort order.</p>
      <p>
        The LIMIT clause places an upper bound on the number of rows returned in the result.

        A negative LIMIT indicates no upper bound. The optional OFFSET following LIMIT specifies

        how many rows to skip at the beginning of the result set. In a compound query, the
        LIMIT clause may only appear on the final SELECT statement. The limit is applied




        to the entire query not to the individual SELECT statement to which it is attached.





        Note that if the OFFSET keyword is used in the LIMIT clause, then the limit is the
        first number and the offset is the second number. If a comma is used instead of








        the OFFSET keyword, then the offset is the first number and the limit is the second

        number. This seeming contradition is intentional - it maximizes compatibility with




        legacy SQL database systems.










      </p>
      <p>



        A compound SELECT is formed from two or more simple SELECTs connected by one of













        the operators UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT, or EXCEPT. In a compound SELECT, all








        the constituent SELECTs must specify the same number of result columns. There may

        be only a single ORDER BY clause at the end of the compound SELECT. The UNION and
        UNION ALL operators combine the results of the SELECTs to the right and left into

        a single big table. The difference is that in UNION all result rows are distinct

        where in UNION ALL there may be duplicates. The INTERSECT operator takes the intersection


        of the results of the left and right SELECTs. EXCEPT takes the result of left SELECT






        after removing the results of the right SELECT. When three or more SELECTs are connected










        into a compound, they group from left to right.</p>










      <p>










        &nbsp;</p>

      <hr>

      <div id="footer">












        <p>

          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>


        </p>
      </div>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>SELECT</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1157' onclick='hideorshow("x1157","x1158")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1158'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1159' onclick='hideorshow("x1159","x1160")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1160' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1161' onclick='hideorshow("x1161","x1162")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1162' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1163' onclick='hideorshow("x1163","x1164")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1164' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1165' onclick='hideorshow("x1165","x1166")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1166' style='display:none;'>

 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1167' onclick='hideorshow("x1167","x1168")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1168' style='display:none;'>

 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1169' onclick='hideorshow("x1169","x1170")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1170' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1171' onclick='hideorshow("x1171","x1172")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1172' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
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 <blockquote id='x1174' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
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 <blockquote id='x1176' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1177' onclick='hideorshow("x1177","x1178")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1178' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1179' onclick='hideorshow("x1179","x1180")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1180' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1181' onclick='hideorshow("x1181","x1182")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1182' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1183' onclick='hideorshow("x1183","x1184")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1184' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>



<p>The SELECT statement is used to query the database.  The
result of a SELECT is zero or more rows of data where each row
has a fixed number of columns.  A SELECT statement does not make
any changes to the database.

<p>The "<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>" syntax diagram above attempts to show as much of the
SELECT statement syntax as possible in a single diagram, because some readers
find that helpful.  The following "<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>" is an alternative
syntax diagrams that expresses the same syntax but tries to break the syntax 
down into smaller chunks.

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1185' onclick='hideorshow("x1185","x1186")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1186' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram factored-select-stmt" src="images/syntax/factored-select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1187' onclick='hideorshow("x1187","x1188")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1188' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1189' onclick='hideorshow("x1189","x1190")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1190' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1191' onclick='hideorshow("x1191","x1192")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1192' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1193' onclick='hideorshow("x1193","x1194")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1194' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1195' onclick='hideorshow("x1195","x1196")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1196' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1197' onclick='hideorshow("x1197","x1198")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1198' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1199' onclick='hideorshow("x1199","x1200")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1200' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>








</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1201' onclick='hideorshow("x1201","x1202")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1202' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1203' onclick='hideorshow("x1203","x1204")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1204' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1205' onclick='hideorshow("x1205","x1206")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1206' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1207' onclick='hideorshow("x1207","x1208")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1208' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1209' onclick='hideorshow("x1209","x1210")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1210' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1211' onclick='hideorshow("x1211","x1212")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1212' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1213' onclick='hideorshow("x1213","x1214")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1214' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1215' onclick='hideorshow("x1215","x1216")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1216' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1217' onclick='hideorshow("x1217","x1218")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1218' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1219' onclick='hideorshow("x1219","x1220")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1220' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1221' onclick='hideorshow("x1221","x1222")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1222' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1223' onclick='hideorshow("x1223","x1224")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1224' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1225' onclick='hideorshow("x1225","x1226")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1226' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-core">select-core:</a></b>
<button id='x1227' onclick='hideorshow("x1227","x1228")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1228' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-core" src="images/syntax/select-core.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1229' onclick='hideorshow("x1229","x1230")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1230' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1231' onclick='hideorshow("x1231","x1232")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1232' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1233' onclick='hideorshow("x1233","x1234")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1234' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1235' onclick='hideorshow("x1235","x1236")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1236' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1237' onclick='hideorshow("x1237","x1238")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1238' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1239' onclick='hideorshow("x1239","x1240")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1240' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>Note that there are paths through the syntax diagrams that
are not allowed in practice.  Some examples:
<ul>
<li>A <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause can be the first element in a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>
    that uses a <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause, but a <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> that consists of
    just a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause cannot be preceded by a <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause.
<li>The <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause must occur on the first SELECT of a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>.
    It cannot follow a <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator</a>.
</ul>

These and other similar syntax restrictions are described in the text.

<p>The SELECT statement is the most complicated command in the SQL language.
To make the description easier to follow, some of the passages below describe
the way the data returned by a SELECT statement is determined as a series of
steps. It is important to keep in mind that this is purely illustrative -
in practice neither SQLite nor any other SQL engine is required to follow 
this or any other specific process.

<a name="simpleselect"></a>

<h3>Simple Select Processing</h3>

<p>The core of a SELECT statement is a "simple SELECT" shown by the
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-core">select-core</a> and <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt</a> syntax diagrams below.  
In practice, most SELECT statements are simple SELECT statements.

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1241' onclick='hideorshow("x1241","x1242")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1242'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram simple-select-stmt" src="images/syntax/simple-select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1243' onclick='hideorshow("x1243","x1244")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1244' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1245' onclick='hideorshow("x1245","x1246")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1246' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1247' onclick='hideorshow("x1247","x1248")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1248' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1249' onclick='hideorshow("x1249","x1250")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1250' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1251' onclick='hideorshow("x1251","x1252")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1252' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1253' onclick='hideorshow("x1253","x1254")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1254' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1255' onclick='hideorshow("x1255","x1256")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1256' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1257' onclick='hideorshow("x1257","x1258")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1258' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1259' onclick='hideorshow("x1259","x1260")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1260' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1261' onclick='hideorshow("x1261","x1262")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1262' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />

</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1263' onclick='hideorshow("x1263","x1264")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1264' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1265' onclick='hideorshow("x1265","x1266")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1266' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1267' onclick='hideorshow("x1267","x1268")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1268' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1269' onclick='hideorshow("x1269","x1270")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1270' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1271' onclick='hideorshow("x1271","x1272")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1272' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1273' onclick='hideorshow("x1273","x1274")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1274' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1275' onclick='hideorshow("x1275","x1276")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1276' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1277' onclick='hideorshow("x1277","x1278")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1278' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1279' onclick='hideorshow("x1279","x1280")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1280' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1281' onclick='hideorshow("x1281","x1282")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1282' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1283' onclick='hideorshow("x1283","x1284")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1284' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-core">select-core:</a></b>
<button id='x1285' onclick='hideorshow("x1285","x1286")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1286'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-core" src="images/syntax/select-core.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1287' onclick='hideorshow("x1287","x1288")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1288' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1289' onclick='hideorshow("x1289","x1290")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1290' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1291' onclick='hideorshow("x1291","x1292")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1292' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1293' onclick='hideorshow("x1293","x1294")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1294' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1295' onclick='hideorshow("x1295","x1296")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1296' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1297' onclick='hideorshow("x1297","x1298")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1298' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1299' onclick='hideorshow("x1299","x1300")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1300' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>Generating the results of a simple SELECT
statement is presented as a four step process in the description below:

<ol>
  <li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#fromclause">FROM clause</a> processing: The input data for the simple SELECT is
       determined. The input data is either implicitly a single row with 0
       columns (if there is no FROM clause) or is determined by the FROM
       clause.
  <li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#whereclause">WHERE clause</a> processing: The input data is filtered using the WHERE
       clause expression.  
  <li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#resultset">GROUP BY, HAVING and result-column expression</a> processing: 
       The set of result rows is computed by aggregating the data according to
       any GROUP BY clause and calculating the result-set expressions for the
       rows of the filtered input dataset.  
  <li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#distinct">DISTINCT/ALL keyword</a> processing: If the query is a "SELECT
       DISTINCT" query, duplicate rows are removed from the set of result rows.
</ol>

<p>There are two types of simple SELECT statement - aggregate and 
non-aggregate queries. A simple SELECT statement is an aggregate query if
it contains either a GROUP BY clause or one or more aggregate functions
in the result-set. Otherwise, if a simple SELECT contains no aggregate
functions or a GROUP BY clause, it is a non-aggregate query.

<p><b>1. Determination of input data (FROM clause processing).</b>
<a name="fromclause"></a>




<p>The input data used by a simple SELECT query is a set of <i>N</i> rows 
each <i>M</i> columns wide.

<p>If the FROM clause is omitted from a simple SELECT statement, then the 
input data is implicitly a single row zero columns wide (i.e. <i>N</i>=1 and
<i>M</i>=0).

<p>If a FROM clause is specified, the data on which a simple SELECT query
operates comes from the one or more tables or subqueries (SELECT statements
in parenthesis) specified following the FROM keyword. A subquery specified
in the table-or-subquery following the FROM clause in a 
simple SELECT statement is
handled as if it was a table containing the data returned by executing the
subquery statement. Each column of the subquery has the
<a href="datatype3.html#collation">collation sequence</a> and <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> of the corresponding expression
in the subquery statement.

<p>If there is only a single table or subquery in the FROM
clause, then the input data used by the SELECT statement is the contents of the
named table. If there is more than one table or subquery in FROM clause
then the contents of all tables and/or subqueries
are joined into a single dataset for the simple SELECT statement to operate on.
Exactly how the data is combined depends on the specific <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator</a> and
<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint</a> used to connect the tables or subqueries together.

<p>All joins in SQLite are based on the cartesian product of the left and
right-hand datasets. The columns of the cartesian product dataset are, in 
order, all the columns of the left-hand dataset followed by all the columns
of the right-hand dataset. There is a row in the cartesian product dataset
formed by combining each unique combination of a row from the left-hand 
and right-hand datasets. In other words, if the left-hand dataset consists of
<i>N<sub><small>left</small></sub></i> rows of 
<i>M<sub><small>left</small></sub></i> columns, and the right-hand dataset of
<i>N<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> rows of
<i>M<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> columns, then the cartesian product is a
dataset of 
<i>N<sub><small>left</small></sub>&times;N<sub><small>right</small></sub></i>
rows, each containing 
<i>M<sub><small>left</small></sub>+M<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> columns.

<p>If the join-operator is "CROSS JOIN", "INNER JOIN", "JOIN" or a comma
(",") and there is no ON or USING clause, then the result of the join is
simply the cartesian product of the left and right-hand datasets. 
If join-operator does have ON or USING clauses, those are handled according to
the following bullet points:

<ul>
  <li> <p>If there is an ON clause then the ON expression is
       evaluated for each row of the cartesian product as a 
       <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which the expression evaluates to 
       true are included from the dataset.

  <li> <p>If there is a USING clause
       then each of the column names specified must exist in the datasets to 
       both the left and right of the join-operator. For each pair of named
       columns, the expression "lhs.X = rhs.X" is evaluated for each row of
       the cartesian product as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which
       all such expressions evaluates to true are included from the
       result set. When comparing values as a result of a USING clause, the
       normal rules for handling affinities, collation sequences and NULL
       values in comparisons apply. The column from the dataset on the
       left-hand side of the join-operator is considered to be on the left-hand
       side of the comparison operator (=) for the purposes of collation 
       sequence and affinity precedence.

       <p>For each pair of columns identified by a USING clause, the column
       from the right-hand dataset is omitted from the joined dataset. This 
       is the only difference between a USING clause and its equivalent ON
       constraint.

  <li> <p>If the NATURAL keyword is in the join-operator then an
       implicit USING clause is added to the join-constraints. The implicit
       USING clause contains each of the column names that appear in both
       the left and right-hand input datasets. If the left and right-hand
       input datasets feature no common column names, then the NATURAL keyword
       has no effect on the results of the join. A USING or ON clause may
       not be added to a join that specifies the NATURAL keyword.


  <li> <p>If the join-operator is a "LEFT JOIN" or "LEFT OUTER JOIN", then
       after
       the ON or USING filtering clauses have been applied, an extra row is 
       added to the output for each row in the original left-hand input 
       dataset that corresponds to no rows at all in the composite
       dataset (if any). The added rows contain NULL values in the columns
       that would normally contain values copied from the right-hand input
       dataset.  
</ul>

<p>When more than two tables are joined together as part of a FROM clause,
the join operations are processed in order from left to right. In other 
words, the FROM clause (A join-op-1 B join-op-2 C) is computed as 
((A join-op-1 B) join-op-2 C).

<a name="crossjoin"></a>

<p><b>Side note: Special handling of CROSS JOIN.</b>
There is no difference between the "INNER JOIN", "JOIN" and "," join
operators. They are completely interchangeable in SQLite.
The "CROSS JOIN" join operator produces the same result as the 
"INNER JOIN", "JOIN" and "," operators, but is 
<a href="optoverview.html#crossjoin">handled differently by the query
optimizer</a> in that it prevents the query optimizer from reordering
the tables in the join.  An application programmer can use the CROSS JOIN 
operator to directly influence the algorithm that is chosen to implement
the SELECT statement.  Avoid using CROSS JOIN except in specific situations 
where manual control of the query optimizer is desired.  Avoid using
CROSS JOIN early in the development of an application as doing so is
a <a href="http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PrematureOptimization">premature
optimization</a>.  The special handling of CROSS JOIN is an SQLite-specific
feature and is not a part of standard SQL.
       

<a name="whereclause"></a>


<p><b>2. WHERE clause filtering.</b>

<p>If a WHERE clause is specified, the WHERE expression is evaluated for 
each row in the input data as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which the
WHERE clause expression evaluates to true are included from the dataset before
continuing.  Rows are excluded from the result if the WHERE clause
evaluates to either false or NULL.

<p>For a JOIN or INNER JOIN or CROSS JOIN, there is no difference between 
a constraint expression in the WHERE clause and one in the ON clause.  However,
for a LEFT JOIN or LEFT OUTER JOIN, the difference is very important.  
In a LEFT JOIN,
the extra NULL row for the right-hand table is added after ON clause processing
but before WHERE clause processing.  A constraint of the form "left.x=right.y"
in an ON clause will therefore allow through the added all-NULL rows of the
right table.  But if that same constraint is in the WHERE clause a NULL in
"right.y" will prevent the expression "left.x=right.y" from being true, and
thus exclude that row from the output.

<p><b>3. Generation of the set of result rows.</b>
<a name="resultset"></a>



<p>Once the input data from the FROM clause has been filtered by the
WHERE clause expression (if any), the set of result rows for the simple 
SELECT are calculated. Exactly how this is done depends on whether the simple 
SELECT is an aggregate or non-aggregate query, and whether or not a GROUP
BY clause was specified.

<p> The list of expressions between the SELECT and FROM keywords is known as
the result expression list.  If a result expression is the special expression
"*" then all columns in the input data are substituted for that one expression.
If the expression is the alias of a table or subquery in the FROM clause
followed by ".*" then all columns from the named table or subquery are
substituted for the single expression. It is an error to use a "*" or
"alias.*" expression in any context other than a result expression list.
It is also an error to use a "*" or "alias.*" expression in a simple SELECT
query that does not have a FROM clause.

<p> The number of columns in the rows returned by a simple SELECT statement
is equal to the number of expressions in the result expression list after
substitution of * and alias.* expressions. Each result row is calculated by
evaluating the expressions in the result expression list with respect to a
single row of input data or, for aggregate queries, with respect to a group
of rows.

<ul>
  <li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>a non-aggregate query</b>, then 
    each expression in the result expression list is evaluated for each row in
    the dataset filtered by the WHERE clause.

  <li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>an aggregate query without a GROUP
    BY</b> clause, then each aggregate expression in the result-set is 
    evaluated once across the entire dataset. Each non-aggregate expression
    in the result-set is evaluated once for an arbitrarily selected row of
    the dataset. The same arbitrarily selected row is used for each
    non-aggregate expression. Or, if the dataset contains zero rows, then 
    each non-aggregate expression is evaluated against a row consisting
    entirely of NULL values.

   <p>The single row of result-set data created by evaluating the aggregate
    and non-aggregate expressions in the result-set forms the result of an
    aggregate query without a GROUP BY clause. An aggregate query without a
    GROUP BY clause always returns exactly one row of data, even if there are
    zero rows of input data.

  <li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>an aggregate query with a GROUP
    BY</b> clause, then each of the expressions specified as part of the
    GROUP BY clause is evaluated for each row of the dataset. Each row
    is then assigned to a "group" based on the results; rows for which
    the results of evaluating the GROUP BY expressions are the same get
    assigned to the same group. For the purposes of grouping rows, NULL 
    values are considered equal. The usual rules for <a href="datatype3.html#collation">selecting a
    collation sequence</a> with which to compare text values apply when evaluating
    expressions in a GROUP BY clause.  The expressions in the GROUP BY clause
    do <em>not</em> have to be expressions that appear in the result. The
    expressions in a GROUP BY clause may not be aggregate expressions.

    <p>If a HAVING clause is specified, it is evaluated once for each group 
    of rows as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. If the result of evaluating the
    HAVING clause is false, the group is discarded. If the HAVING clause is
    an aggregate expression, it is evaluated across all rows in the group. If
    a HAVING clause is a non-aggregate expression, it is evaluated with respect
    to an arbitrarily selected row from the group.  The HAVING expression may
    refer to values, even aggregate functions, that are not in the result.</p>

    <p>Each expression in the result-set is then evaluated once for each
    group of rows. If the expression is an aggregate expression, it is 
    evaluated across all rows in the group. Otherwise, it is evaluated against
    a single arbitrarily chosen row from within the group. If there is more
    than one non-aggregate expression in the result-set, then all such
    expressions are evaluated for the same row.

    <p>Each group of input dataset rows contributes a single row to the 
    set of result rows. Subject to filtering associated with the DISTINCT
    keyword, the number of rows returned by an aggregate query with a GROUP
    BY clause is the same as the number of groups of rows produced by applying
    the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses to the filtered input dataset.
</ul>

<p><b>4. Removal of duplicate rows (DISTINCT processing).</b>
<a name="distinct"></a>




<p>One of the ALL or DISTINCT keywords may follow the SELECT keyword in a 
simple SELECT statement. If the simple SELECT is a SELECT ALL, then the
entire set of result rows are returned by the SELECT. If neither ALL or
DISTINCT are present, then the behavior is as if ALL were specified. 
If the simple SELECT is a SELECT DISTINCT, then duplicate rows are removed
from the set of result rows before it is returned. For the purposes of
detecting duplicate rows, two NULL values are considered to be equal. The
normal rules for selecting a collation sequence to compare text values with
apply.

<a name="compound"></a>

<h3>Compound Select Statements</h3>

<p>Two or more <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> statements may be connected together to form
a compound SELECT using the UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT or EXCEPT operator,
as shown by the following diagram:

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-select-stmt">compound-select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1301' onclick='hideorshow("x1301","x1302")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1302'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-select-stmt" src="images/syntax/compound-select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1303' onclick='hideorshow("x1303","x1304")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1304' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1305' onclick='hideorshow("x1305","x1306")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1306' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1307' onclick='hideorshow("x1307","x1308")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1308' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1309' onclick='hideorshow("x1309","x1310")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1310' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1311' onclick='hideorshow("x1311","x1312")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1312' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1313' onclick='hideorshow("x1313","x1314")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1314' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1315' onclick='hideorshow("x1315","x1316")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1316' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>



<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1317' onclick='hideorshow("x1317","x1318")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1318' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1319' onclick='hideorshow("x1319","x1320")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1320' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1321' onclick='hideorshow("x1321","x1322")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1322' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1323' onclick='hideorshow("x1323","x1324")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1324' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1325' onclick='hideorshow("x1325","x1326")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1326' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1327' onclick='hideorshow("x1327","x1328")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1328' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1329' onclick='hideorshow("x1329","x1330")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1330' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1331' onclick='hideorshow("x1331","x1332")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1332' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1333' onclick='hideorshow("x1333","x1334")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1334' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>




</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1335' onclick='hideorshow("x1335","x1336")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1336' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1337' onclick='hideorshow("x1337","x1338")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1338' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1339' onclick='hideorshow("x1339","x1340")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1340' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1341' onclick='hideorshow("x1341","x1342")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1342' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1343' onclick='hideorshow("x1343","x1344")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1344' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-core">select-core:</a></b>
<button id='x1345' onclick='hideorshow("x1345","x1346")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1346' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-core" src="images/syntax/select-core.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1347' onclick='hideorshow("x1347","x1348")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1348' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1349' onclick='hideorshow("x1349","x1350")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1350' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1351' onclick='hideorshow("x1351","x1352")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1352' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1353' onclick='hideorshow("x1353","x1354")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1354' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1355' onclick='hideorshow("x1355","x1356")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1356' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1357' onclick='hideorshow("x1357","x1358")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1358' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1359' onclick='hideorshow("x1359","x1360")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1360' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>In a compound SELECT, all the constituent SELECTs must return the same 
number of result columns. As the components of a compound SELECT must
be simple SELECT statements, they may not contain <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> or <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a> clauses.
<a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> and <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a> clauses may only occur at the end of the entire compound
SELECT, and then only if the final element of the compound is not a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause.

<p>A compound SELECT created using UNION ALL operator returns all the rows
from the SELECT to the left of the UNION ALL operator, and all the rows
from the SELECT to the right of it. The UNION operator works the same way as
UNION ALL, except that duplicate rows are removed from the final result set.
The INTERSECT operator returns the intersection of the results of the left and
right SELECTs.  The EXCEPT operator returns the subset of rows returned by the
left SELECT that are not also returned by the right-hand SELECT. Duplicate
rows are removed from the results of INTERSECT and EXCEPT operators before the
result set is returned.

<p>For the purposes of determining duplicate rows for the results of compound
SELECT operators, NULL values are considered equal to other NULL values and
distinct from all non-NULL values. The collation sequence used to compare 
two text values is determined as if the columns of the left and right-hand
SELECT statements were the left and right-hand operands of the equals (=)
operator, except that greater precedence is not assigned to a collation 
sequence specified with the postfix COLLATE operator. No affinity
transformations are applied to any values when comparing rows as part of a
compound SELECT. 

<p>When three or more simple SELECTs are connected into a compound SELECT,
they group from left to right. In other words, if "A", "B" and "C" are all
simple SELECT statements, (A op B op C) is processed as ((A op B) op C).


</p>

<a name="orderby"></a>

<h3>The ORDER BY clause</h3>

<p>If a SELECT statement that returns more than one row does not have an
ORDER BY clause, the order in which the rows are returned is undefined.
Or, if a SELECT statement does have an ORDER BY clause, then the list of
expressions attached to the ORDER BY determine the order in which rows
are returned to the user.

<p>
In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> statement, only the last or right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a>
may have an ORDER BY clause. That ORDER BY clause will apply across all elements of
the compound. If the right-most element of a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> is a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause,
then no ORDER BY clause is allowed on that statement.


<p>Rows are first sorted based on the results of
evaluating the left-most expression in the ORDER BY list, then ties are broken
by evaluating the second left-most expression and so on. The order in which
two rows for which all ORDER BY expressions evaluate to equal values are
returned is undefined. Each ORDER BY expression may be optionally followed
by one of the keywords ASC (smaller values are returned first) or DESC (larger
values are returned first). If neither ASC or DESC are specified, rows
are sorted in ascending (smaller values first) order by default.

<p>Each ORDER BY expression is processed as follows:</p>

<ol>
<li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is a constant integer K then the
expression is considered an alias for the K-th column of the result set
(columns are numbered from left to right starting with 1).

<li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is an identifier that corresponds to
the alias of one of the output columns, then the expression is considered
an alias for that column.

<li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is any other expression, it 
is evaluated and the returned value used to order the output rows. If
the SELECT statement is a simple SELECT, then an ORDER BY may contain any
arbitrary expressions. However, if the SELECT is a compound SELECT, then
ORDER BY expressions that are not aliases to output columns must be exactly
the same as an expression used as an output column.
</ol>

<p>For the purposes of sorting rows, values are compared in the same way
as for <a href="datatype3.html#comparisons">comparison expressions</a>. The collation sequence used to compare
two text values is determined as follows:

<ol>
  <li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is assigned a collation sequence using
  the postfix <a href="lang_expr.html#collateop">COLLATE operator</a>, then the specified collation sequence is
  used.
  <li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is an alias to an expression
  that has been assigned a collation sequence using the postfix 
  <a href="lang_expr.html#collateop">COLLATE operator</a>, then the collation sequence assigned to the aliased
  expression is used.
  <li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is a column or an alias of
  an expression that is a column, then the default collation sequence for
  the column is used. 
  <li><p>Otherwise, the <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a> collation sequence is used.
</ol>

<p>In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> statement, all ORDER BY expressions are handled
as aliases for one of the result columns of the compound.
If an ORDER BY expression is not an integer alias, then SQLite searches
the left-most SELECT in the compound for a result column that matches either
the second or third rules above. If a match is found, the search stops and
the expression is handled as an alias for the result column that it has been
matched against. Otherwise, the next SELECT to the right is tried, and so on.
If no matching expression can be found in the result columns of any
constituent SELECT, it is an error. Each term of the ORDER BY clause is
processed separately and may be matched against result columns from different
SELECT statements in the compound.</p>

<a name="limitoffset"></a>

<h3>The LIMIT clause</h3>

<p>The LIMIT clause is used to place an upper bound on the number of rows
returned by the entire SELECT statement.

<p>In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>, only the
last or right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> may contain a LIMIT clause.  
In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>, 
the LIMIT clause applies to the entire compound, not just the final SELECT.
If the right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> is a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES clause</a> then no LIMIT clause
is allowed.

<p>Any scalar expression may be used in the 
LIMIT clause, so long as it evaluates to an integer or a value that can be
losslessly converted to an integer. If the expression evaluates to a NULL 
value or any other value that cannot be losslessly converted to an integer, an
error is returned. If the LIMIT expression evaluates to a negative value,
then there is no upper bound on the number of rows returned. Otherwise, the
SELECT returns the first N rows of its result set only, where N is the value
that the LIMIT expression evaluates to. Or, if the SELECT statement would
return less than N rows without a LIMIT clause, then the entire result set is
returned. 

<p>The expression attached to the optional OFFSET clause that may follow a
LIMIT clause must also evaluate to an integer, or a value that can be
losslessly converted to an integer. If an expression has an OFFSET clause,
then the first M rows are omitted from the result set returned by the SELECT
statement and the next N rows are returned, where M and N are the values that
the OFFSET and LIMIT clauses evaluate to, respectively. Or, if the SELECT
would return less than M+N rows if it did not have a LIMIT clause, then the
first M rows are skipped and the remaining rows (if any) are returned. If the
OFFSET clause evaluates to a negative value, the results are the same as if it
had evaluated to zero.

<p>Instead of a separate OFFSET clause, the LIMIT clause may specify two
scalar expressions separated by a comma. In this case, the first expression
is used as the OFFSET expression and the second as the LIMIT expression.
This is counter-intuitive, as when using the OFFSET clause the second of
the two expressions is the OFFSET and the first the LIMIT. 
This reversal of the offset and limit is intentional
- it maximizes compatibility with other SQL database systems.
However, to avoid confusion, programmers are strongly encouraged to use
the form of the LIMIT clause that uses the "OFFSET" keyword and avoid
using a LIMIT clause with a comma-separated offset.

<a name="values"></a>

<h3>The VALUES clause</h3>

<p>The phrase "VALUES(<i>expr-list</i>)" means the same thing
as "SELECT <i>expr-list</i>".  The phrase
"VALUES(<i>expr-list-1</i>),...,(<i>expr-list-N</i>)" means the same
thing as "SELECT <i>expr-list-1</i> UNION ALL ... UNION ALL
SELECT <i>expr-list-N</i>".  There is no advantage to using one form
over the other.  Both forms yield the same result and both forms use
the same amount of memory and processing time.

<p>There are some restrictions on the use of a VALUES clause that are
not shown on the syntax diagrams:

<ul>
<li><p>
A VALUES clause cannot be followed by <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> or <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a>.

<li><p>
A VALUES clause cannot be used together with a <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause in a
<a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a>.
</ul>


<h3>The WITH Clause</h3>

<p>SELECT statements may be optionally preceded by a single
<a href="lang_with.html">WITH clause</a> that defines one or more <a href="lang_with.html">common table expressions</a>
for use within the SELECT statement.
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">BEGIN TRANSACTION</span>&nbsp;</td>
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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>

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            <a id="seeAlsoSectionLink" href="#seeAlsoToggle" onclick="OpenSection(seeAlsoToggle)">See Also</a>
            <a id="exampleSectionLink" href="#codeExampleToggle" onclick="OpenSection(codeExampleToggle)">Example</a>






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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        BEGIN TRANSACTION</h4>
      <p>

        <table cellpadding="10">





          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">BEGIN </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> DEFERRED </font>
              </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> IMMEDIATE </font></b><big>|</big><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> EXCLUSIVE </font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0">TRANSACTION </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                    color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font
                      color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">END </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TRANSACTION </font>
              </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>



        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>








            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>


            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">COMMIT </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TRANSACTION </font>
              </b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>
          </tr>

        </table>

        <table cellpadding="10">



          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">ROLLBACK </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">TRANSACTION
              </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>






          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>

      <p>
        Beginning in version 2.0, SQLite supports transactions with rollback and atomic

        commit.</p>


      <p>
        The optional transaction name is ignored. SQLite currently does not allow nested
        transactions.</p>
      <p>
        No changes can be made to the database except within a transaction. Any command
        that changes the database (basically, any SQL command
          other than SELECT) will automatically start a transaction if one is not already in effect. Automatically started transactions

        are committed at the conclusion of the command.
      </p>

      <p>
        Transactions can be started manually using the BEGIN command. Such transactions
        usually persist until the next COMMIT or ROLLBACK command. But a transaction will

        also ROLLBACK if the database is closed or if an error occurs and the ROLLBACK conflict

        resolution algorithm is specified. See the documentation on the <a href="lang_conflict.html">
          ON CONFLICT</a> clause for additional information about the ROLLBACK conflict
        resolution algorithm.
      </p>

      <p>


        In SQLite version 3.0.8 and later, transactions can be deferred, immediate, or exclusive.










        Deferred means that no locks are acquired on the database until the database is







        first accessed. Thus with a deferred transaction, the BEGIN statement itself does

        nothing. Locks are not acquired until the first read or write operation. The first
        read operation against a database creates a SHARED lock and the first write operation

        creates a RESERVED lock. Because the acquisition of locks is deferred until they
        are needed, it is possible that another thread or process could create a separate
        transaction and write to the database after the BEGIN on the current thread has
        executed. If the transaction is immediate, then RESERVED locks are acquired on all
        databases as soon as the BEGIN command is executed, without waiting for the database

        to be used. After a BEGIN IMMEDIATE, you are guaranteed that no other thread or

        process will be able to write to the database or do a BEGIN IMMEDIATE or BEGIN EXCLUSIVE.
        Other processes can continue to read from the database, however. An exclusive transaction
        causes EXCLUSIVE locks to be acquired on all databases. After a BEGIN EXCLUSIVE,

        you are guaranteed that no other thread or process will be able to read or write
        the database until the transaction is complete.

      </p>

      <p>
        A description of the meaning of SHARED, RESERVED, and EXCLUSIVE locks is available






        <a href="lockingv3.html">separately</a>.
      </p>

      <p>





        The default behavior for SQLite version 3.0.8 is a deferred transaction. For SQLite




        version 3.0.0 through 3.0.7, deferred is the only kind of transaction available.
        For SQLite version 2.8 and earlier, all transactions are exclusive.

      </p>

      <p>

        The COMMIT command does not actually perform a commit until all pending SQL commands
        finish. Thus if two or more SELECT statements are in the middle of processing and

        a COMMIT is executed, the commit will not actually occur until all SELECT statements
        finish.


      </p>

      <p>



        An attempt to execute COMMIT might result in an SQLITE_BUSY return code. This indicates

        that another thread or process had a read lock on the database that prevented the

        database from being updated. When COMMIT fails in this way, the transaction remains
        active and the COMMIT can be retried later after the reader has had a chance to
        clear.
      </p>
      <p>

      <hr>




        &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>BEGIN TRANSACTION</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#begin-stmt">begin-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x801' onclick='hideorshow("x801","x802")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x802'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram begin-stmt" src="images/syntax/begin-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p>
No changes can be made to the database except within a transaction.
Any command that changes the database (basically, any SQL command
other than <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>) will automatically start a transaction if
one is not already in effect.  Automatically started transactions
are committed when the last query finishes.
</p>

<p>
Transactions can be started manually using the BEGIN
command.  Such transactions usually persist until the next
COMMIT or ROLLBACK command.  But a transaction will also 
ROLLBACK if the database is closed or if an error occurs
and the ROLLBACK conflict resolution algorithm is specified.
See the documentation on the <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a>
clause for additional information about the ROLLBACK
conflict resolution algorithm.
</p>

<p>
END TRANSACTION is an alias for COMMIT.
</p>

<p> Transactions created using BEGIN...COMMIT do not nest.
For nested transactions, use the <a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a> and <a href="lang_savepoint.html">RELEASE</a> commands.
The "TO SAVEPOINT <i>name</i>" clause of the ROLLBACK command shown
in the syntax diagram above is only applicable to <a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a>
transactions.  An attempt to invoke the BEGIN command within
a transaction will fail with an error, regardless of whether
the transaction was started by <a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a> or a prior BEGIN.
The COMMIT command and the ROLLBACK command without the TO clause
work the same on <a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a> transactions as they do with transactions
started by BEGIN.</p>

<a name="immediate"></a>

<p>
Transactions can be deferred, immediate, or exclusive.  
The default transaction behavior is deferred.
Deferred means that no locks are acquired
on the database until the database is first accessed.  Thus with a
deferred transaction, the BEGIN statement itself does nothing to the
filesystem.  Locks
are not acquired until the first read or write operation.  The first read
operation against a database creates a <a href="lockingv3.html#shared_lock">SHARED</a> lock and the first
write operation creates a <a href="lockingv3.html#reserved_lock">RESERVED</a> lock.   Because the acquisition of
locks is deferred until they are needed, it is possible that another
thread or process could create a separate transaction and write to
the database after the BEGIN on the current thread has executed.
If the transaction is immediate, then <a href="lockingv3.html#reserved_lock">RESERVED</a> locks
are acquired on all databases as soon as the BEGIN command is
executed, without waiting for the
database to be used.  After a BEGIN IMMEDIATE, 
no other <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a> will be able to write to the database or
do a BEGIN IMMEDIATE or BEGIN EXCLUSIVE.  Other processes can continue
to read from the database, however.  An exclusive transaction causes
<a href="lockingv3.html#excl_lock">EXCLUSIVE</a> locks to be acquired on all databases.  After a BEGIN
EXCLUSIVE, no other <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a> except for <a href="pragma.html#pragma_read_uncommitted">read_uncommitted</a>
connections will be able to read the database and no other connection without
exception will be able to write the database until the transaction is
complete.
</p>

<p>

An implicit transaction (a transaction that is started automatically,
not a transaction started by BEGIN) is committed automatically when
the last active statement finishes.  A statement finishes when its
prepared statement is <a href="c3ref/reset.html">reset</a> or
<a href="c3ref/finalize.html">finalized</a>.  An open <a href="c3ref/blob.html">sqlite3_blob</a> used for
incremental BLOB I/O counts as an unfinished statement.  The <a href="c3ref/blob.html">sqlite3_blob</a>
finishes when it is <a href="c3ref/blob_close.html">closed</a>.
</p>

<p>
The explicit COMMIT command runs immediately, even if there are
pending <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statements.  However, if there are pending
write operations, the COMMIT command
will fail with an error code <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_BUSY</a>.
</p>

<p>
An attempt to execute COMMIT might also result in an <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_BUSY</a> return code
if an another thread or process has a <a href="lockingv3.html#shared_lock">shared lock</a> on the database
that prevented the database from being updated.  When COMMIT fails in this
way, the transaction remains active and the COMMIT can be retried later

after the reader has had a chance to clear.
</p>

<p>
The ROLLBACK will fail with an error code <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_BUSY</a> if there
are any pending queries.  Both read-only and read/write queries will

cause a ROLLBACK to fail.  A ROLLBACK must fail if there are pending
read operations (unlike COMMIT which can succeed) because bad things

will happen if the in-memory image of the database is changed out from under
an active query.
</p>

<p>
If <a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">PRAGMA journal_mode</a> is set to OFF (thus disabling the rollback journal
file) then the behavior of the ROLLBACK command is undefined.
</p>

<h3>Response To Errors Within A Transaction</h3>

<p> If certain kinds of errors occur within a transaction, the
transaction may or may not be rolled back automatically.  The
errors that can cause an automatic rollback include:</p>


<ul>
<li> <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_FULL</a>: database or disk full
<li> <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_IOERR</a>: disk I/O error
<li> <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_BUSY</a>: database in use by another process
<li> <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_NOMEM</a>: out or memory
<li> <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_INTERRUPT</a>: processing <a href="c3ref/interrupt.html">interrupted</a>
     by application request
</ul>

<p>
For all of these errors, SQLite attempts to undo just the one statement
it was working on and leave changes from prior statements within the
same transaction intact and continue with the transaction.  However, 
depending on the statement being evaluated and the point at which the
error occurs, it might be necessary for SQLite to rollback and
cancel the entire transaction.  An application can tell which
course of action SQLite took by using the
<a href="c3ref/get_autocommit.html">sqlite3_get_autocommit()</a> C-language interface.</p>

<p>It is recommended that applications respond to the errors
listed above by explicitly issuing a ROLLBACK command.  If the 
transaction has already been rolled back automatically
by the error response, then the ROLLBACK command will fail with an
error, but no harm is caused by this.</p>

<p>Future versions of SQLite may extend the list of errors which
might cause automatic transaction rollback.  Future versions of
SQLite might change the error response.  In particular, we may
choose to simplify the interface in future versions of SQLite by
causing the errors above to force an unconditional rollback.</p>
Changes to Doc/Extra/Core/lang_update.html. 
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>

        UPDATE</h4>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">




          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>


              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">UPDATE </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> OR </font></b>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">conflict-algorithm</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
              </b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font
                color="#ff3434">database-name</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"> <big>.</big></font></b>]<b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">table-name</font></i><b><font
                    color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                    SET </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">assignment</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0">
                    </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>,</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                      assignment</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><big>*</big><b><font






































                        color="#2c2cf0"><br />
                      </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">WHERE </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                        color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>




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            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">assignment</font></i> ::=</td>




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              <b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">column-name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> <big>=</big> </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">expr</font></i><b><font
                  color="#2c2cf0"></font></b></td>




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      </p>
      <p>
        The UPDATE statement is used to change the value of columns in selected rows of


        a table. Each assignment in an UPDATE specifies a column









        name to the left of the
        equals sign and an arbitrary expression to the right. The expressions may use the
        values of




          other columns. All expressions are evaluated before any assignments are
        made. A WHERE clause can be used to restrict which rows are updated.</p>
      <p>

        The optional conflict-clause allows the specification of an alternative constraint conflict resolution algorithm to use during this one command. See the section titled
        <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.</p>


















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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>UPDATE</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#update-stmt">update-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1361' onclick='hideorshow("x1361","x1362")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1362'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram update-stmt" src="images/syntax/update-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1363' onclick='hideorshow("x1363","x1364")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1364' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1365' onclick='hideorshow("x1365","x1366")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1366' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1367' onclick='hideorshow("x1367","x1368")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1368' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1369' onclick='hideorshow("x1369","x1370")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1370' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1371' onclick='hideorshow("x1371","x1372")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1372' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1373' onclick='hideorshow("x1373","x1374")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1374' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1375' onclick='hideorshow("x1375","x1376")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1376' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1377' onclick='hideorshow("x1377","x1378")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1378' style='display:none;'>



 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1379' onclick='hideorshow("x1379","x1380")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1380' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>


</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1381' onclick='hideorshow("x1381","x1382")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1382' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1383' onclick='hideorshow("x1383","x1384")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1384' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1385' onclick='hideorshow("x1385","x1386")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1386' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1387' onclick='hideorshow("x1387","x1388")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1388' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1389' onclick='hideorshow("x1389","x1390")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1390' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1391' onclick='hideorshow("x1391","x1392")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1392' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram qualified-table-name" src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1393' onclick='hideorshow("x1393","x1394")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1394' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1395' onclick='hideorshow("x1395","x1396")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1396' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1397' onclick='hideorshow("x1397","x1398")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1398' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1399' onclick='hideorshow("x1399","x1400")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1400' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1401' onclick='hideorshow("x1401","x1402")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1402' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1403' onclick='hideorshow("x1403","x1404")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1404' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1405' onclick='hideorshow("x1405","x1406")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1406' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>


<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1407' onclick='hideorshow("x1407","x1408")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1408' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>


</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1409' onclick='hideorshow("x1409","x1410")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1410' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1411' onclick='hideorshow("x1411","x1412")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1412' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1413' onclick='hideorshow("x1413","x1414")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1414' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>An UPDATE statement is used to modify a subset of the values stored in 
zero or more rows of the database table identified by the 
<i>qualified-table-name</i> specified as part of the UPDATE statement.

<p>If the UPDATE statement does not have a WHERE clause, all rows in the
table are modified by the UPDATE. Otherwise, the UPDATE affects only those
rows for which the result of evaluating the WHERE clause expression as a 
<a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression is true</a>. It is not an error if the
WHERE clause does not evaluate to true for any row in the table - this just
means that the UPDATE statement affects zero rows.

<p>The modifications made to each row affected by an UPDATE statement are
determined by the list of assignments following the SET keyword. Each
assignment specifies a column name to the left of the equals sign and a
scalar expression to the right. For each affected row, the named columns
are set to the values found by evaluating the corresponding scalar 
expressions. If a single column-name appears more than once in the list of
assignment expressions, all but the rightmost occurrence is ignored. Columns
that do not appear in the list of assignments are left unmodified. The scalar
expressions may refer to columns of the row being updated. In this case all
scalar expressions are evaluated before any assignments are made.


<p>The optional conflict-clause allows the user to nominate a specific
constraint conflict resolution algorithm to use during this one UPDATE command.
Refer to the section entitled <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.

<h3>Restrictions on UPDATE Statements Within CREATE TRIGGER</h3>

<p>The following additional syntax restrictions apply to UPDATE statements that
occur within the body of a <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a> statement.  

<ul>
  <li><p>The <i>table-name</i> specified as part of an UPDATE statement within
      a trigger body must be unqualified. In other words, the
      <i>database-name</i><b>.</b> prefix on the table name of the UPDATE is
      not allowed within triggers. Unless the table to which the trigger
      is attached is in the TEMP database, the table being updated by the
      trigger program must reside in the same database as it. If the table
      to which the trigger is attached is in the TEMP database, then the
      unqualified name of the table being updated is resolved in the same way
      as it is for a top-level statement (by searching first the TEMP database,
      then the main database, then any other databases in the order they were
      attached).

  <li><p>The INDEXED BY and NOT INDEXED clauses are not allowed on UPDATE
      statements within triggers.</p>

  <li><p>The LIMIT and ORDER BY clauses for UPDATE are unsupported within
      triggers, regardless of the compilation options used to build SQLite.
</ul>

<h3>Optional LIMIT and ORDER BY Clauses</h3>

<p>If SQLite is built with the <a href="compile.html#enable_update_delete_limit">SQLITE_ENABLE_UPDATE_DELETE_LIMIT</a>
compile-time option then the syntax of the UPDATE statement is extended
with optional ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses as follows:</p>

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited:</a></b></p><blockquote>
 <img alt="syntax diagram update-stmt-limited" src="images/syntax/update-stmt-limited.gif"></img>
 </blockquote>


<p>If an UPDATE statement has a LIMIT clause, the maximum number of rows that
will be updated is found by evaluating the accompanying expression and casting
it to an integer value. A negative value is interpreted as "no limit".

<p>If the LIMIT expression evaluates to non-negative value <i>N</i> and the
UPDATE statement has an ORDER BY clause, then all rows that would be updated in
the absence of the LIMIT clause are sorted according to the ORDER BY and the
first <i>N</i> updated. If the UPDATE statement also has an OFFSET clause,
then it is similarly evaluated and cast to an integer value. If the OFFSET
expression evaluates to a non-negative value <i>M</i>, then the first <i>M</i>
rows are skipped and the following <i>N</i> rows updated instead.

<p>If the UPDATE statement has no ORDER BY clause, then all rows that
would be updated in the absence of the LIMIT clause are assembled in an
arbitrary order before applying the LIMIT and OFFSET clauses to determine 
which are actually updated.

<p>The ORDER BY clause on an UPDATE statement is used only to determine which
rows fall within the LIMIT. The order in which rows are modified is arbitrary
and is not influenced by the ORDER BY clause.
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">VACUUM</span>&nbsp;</td>
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            <span id="nsrTitle">SQLite Language Reference Documentation</span>
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      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <h4>
        VACUUM</h4>
      <p>


        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>

              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
















            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">VACUUM </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b><i><font





                color="#ff3434">index-or-tablename</font></i>]</td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>

      <p>





        The VACUUM command is an SQLite extension modeled after a similar command found
        in PostgreSQL. If VACUUM is invoked with the name of a table or index then it is
        suppose to clean up the named table or index. In version 1.0 of SQLite, the VACUUM
        command would invoke <b>gdbm_reorganize()</b> to clean up the backend database file.</p>
      <p>


        VACUUM became a no-op when the GDBM backend was removed from SQLITE in version 2.0.0.
        VACUUM was reimplemented in version 2.8.1. The index or table name argument is now
        ignored.
      </p>
      <p>

        When an object (table, index, or trigger) is dropped from the database, it leaves
        behind empty space. This makes the database file larger than it needs to be, but


        can speed up inserts. In time inserts and deletes can leave the database file structure


        fragmented, which slows down disk access to the database contents. The VACUUM command


        cleans the main database by copying its contents to a temporary database file and
        reloading the original database file from the copy. This eliminates free pages,









        aligns table data to be contiguous, and otherwise cleans up the database file structure.

        It is not possible to perform the same process on an attached database file.</p>
      <p>







        This command will fail if there is an active transaction. This command has no effect



        on an in-memory database.</p>


      <p>
        As of SQLite version 3.1, an alternative to using the VACUUM command is auto-vacuum

        mode, enabled using the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum pragma</a>.</p>




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        &nbsp;</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>VACUUM</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#vacuum-stmt">vacuum-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1415' onclick='hideorshow("x1415","x1416")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1416'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram vacuum-stmt" src="images/syntax/vacuum-stmt.gif" />
</blockquote>




<p>
  The VACUUM command rebuilds the entire database. There are several 
  reasons an application might do this:




<ul>
  <li> <p> Unless SQLite is running in "auto_vacuum=FULL" mode, when a large
     amount of data is deleted from the database file it leaves behind empty
     space, or "free" database pages. This means the database file might
     be larger than strictly necessary. Running VACUUM to rebuild the 
     database reclaims this space and reduces the size of the database file.

  <li> <p> Frequent inserts, updates, and deletes can cause the database file
     to become fragmented - where data for a single table or index is scattered 
     around the database file. Running VACUUM ensures that each table and
     index is largely stored contiguously within the database file. In some
     cases, VACUUM may also reduce the number of partially filled pages in
     the database, reducing the size of the database file further.

  <li> <p> Normally, the database <a href="pragma.html#pragma_page_size">page_size</a> and whether or not the database
     supports <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a> must be configured before the database file is
     actually created. However, when not in <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> mode, the 
     <a href="pragma.html#pragma_page_size">page_size</a> and/or <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a> properties of an existing database may be
     changed by using the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_page_size">page_size</a>  and/or 
     <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">pragma auto_vacuum</a> pragmas and then immediately VACUUMing
     the database. When in <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> mode, only the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a>
     support property can be changed using VACUUM.
</ul>

<p>VACUUM only works on the main database. It is not possible to VACUUM an
attached database file.

<p>The VACUUM command works by copying the contents of the database into
a temporary database file and then overwriting the original with the 
contents of the temporary file. When overwriting the original, a rollback
journal or <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> WAL file is used just as it would be for any
other database transaction. This means that when VACUUMing a database, 
as much as twice the size of the original database file is required in free
disk space.

<p>The VACUUM command may change the <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">ROWIDs</a> of entries in any
tables that do not have an explicit <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.
</p>

<p>A VACUUM will fail if there is an open transaction, or if there are one or
more active SQL statements when it is run.

<p>As of SQLite version 3.1, an alternative to using the VACUUM command to
reclaim space after data has been deleted is auto-vacuum mode, enabled using
the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a> pragma. When <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a> is enabled for a database
free pages may be reclaimed after deleting data, causing the file to shrink,
without rebuilding the entire database using VACUUM.  However, using
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a> can lead to extra database file fragmentation.  And <a href="pragma.html#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a>
does not compact partially filled pages of the database as VACUUM does.







</p>
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<h1 align="center">SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1><p><a href="lang.html">[Top]</a></p><h2>WITH clause</h2><p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#with-clause">with-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1121' onclick='hideorshow("x1121","x1122")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1122'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram with-clause" src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1123' onclick='hideorshow("x1123","x1124")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1124' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1125' onclick='hideorshow("x1125","x1126")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1126' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram select-stmt" src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#common-table-expression">common-table-expression:</a></b>
<button id='x1127' onclick='hideorshow("x1127","x1128")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1128' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram common-table-expression" src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1129' onclick='hideorshow("x1129","x1130")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1130' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram compound-operator" src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#expr">expr:</a></b>
<button id='x1131' onclick='hideorshow("x1131","x1132")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1132' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram expr" src="images/syntax/expr.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#literal-value">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1133' onclick='hideorshow("x1133","x1134")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1134' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram literal-value" src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#raise-function">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x1135' onclick='hideorshow("x1135","x1136")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1136' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram raise-function" src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#type-name">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1137' onclick='hideorshow("x1137","x1138")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1138' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram type-name" src="images/syntax/type-name.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1139' onclick='hideorshow("x1139","x1140")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1140' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-clause">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1141' onclick='hideorshow("x1141","x1142")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1142' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-clause" src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-constraint">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='x1143' onclick='hideorshow("x1143","x1144")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1144' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-constraint" src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#join-operator">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x1145' onclick='hideorshow("x1145","x1146")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1146' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram join-operator" src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#ordering-term">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1147' onclick='hideorshow("x1147","x1148")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1148' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram ordering-term" src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#result-column">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='x1149' onclick='hideorshow("x1149","x1150")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1150' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram result-column" src="images/syntax/result-column.gif" />
</blockquote>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x1151' onclick='hideorshow("x1151","x1152")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1152' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram table-or-subquery" src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>Common Table Expressions or CTEs act like temporary <a href="lang_createview.html">views</a> that exist
only for the duration of a single SQL statement.  There are two kinds of
common table expressions: "ordinary" and "recursive". Ordinary 
common table expressions are helpful for making
queries easier to understand by factoring
subqueries out of the main SQL statement.
Recursive common table expression
provide the ability to do hierarchical or
recursive queries of trees and graphs, a capability
that is not otherwise available in the SQL language.

All common table expressions (ordinary and recursive) are 
created by prepending a WITH clause in front of a <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>,
or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statement.  A single WITH clause can specify one or more
common table expressions.

<a name="ordinarycte"></a>

<h3>Ordinary Common Table Expressions</h3>

<p>An ordinary common table expression works as if it were a <a href="lang_createview.html">view</a> that
exists for the duration of a single statement.  Ordinary common table
expressions are useful for factoring out subqueries and making the overall
SQL statement easier to read and understand.

<a name="recursivecte"></a>

<h3>Recursive Common Table Expressions</h3>

<p>A recursive common table expression can be used to write a query that
walks a tree or graph.  A recursive common table expression has the same
basic syntax as an ordinary common table expression, but with the following
additional features:

<ol>
<li> The "<a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>"
     must be a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound select</a> where the right-most <a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#compound-operator">compound-operator</a> is
     either UNION or UNION ALL.
<li> The table named on the left-hand side of the AS keyword must appear
     exactly once in the FROM clause of the right-most SELECT statement
     of the compound select, and nowhere else.
</ol>

<p>To put it another way, a recursive common table expression must
look like the following:

<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#recursive-cte">recursive-cte:</a></b>
<button id='x1153' onclick='hideorshow("x1153","x1154")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1154'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram recursive-cte" src="images/syntax/recursive-cte.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#cte-table-name">cte-table-name:</a></b>
<button id='x1155' onclick='hideorshow("x1155","x1156")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1156' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram cte-table-name" src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>


<p>We refer to the table named by the cte-table-name in a recursive
common table expression as the "recursive table".
In the recursive-cte bubble diagram above, the recursive
table must appear exactly once in the FROM clause of the recursive-select
and must not appear anywhere else in either the initial-select or the
recursive-select, including subqueries.  The initial-select may be
a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound select</a>, but it may not include an ORDER BY, LIMIT, or OFFSET.
The recursive-select must be a simple select, not a compound.  The
recursive-select is allowed to include an ORDER BY, LIMIT, and/or OFFSET.

<p>The basic algorithm for computing the content of the recursive table
is as follows:

<ol>
<li> Run the initial-select and add the results to a queue.
<li> While the queue is not empty:
<ol type="a">
<li> Extract a single row from the queue.
<li> Insert that single row into the recursive table
<li> Pretend that the single row just extracted is the only
     row in the recursive table and run the recursive-select,
     adding all results to the queue.
</ol>
</ol>

<p>The basic procedure above may modified by the following additional rules:

<ul>
<li><p>
  If a UNION operator connects the initial-select with the
  recursive-select, then only add rows to the queue if no identical row has
  been previously added to the queue.  Repeated rows are discarded before being
  added to the queue even if the repeated rows have already been extracted
  from the queue by the recursion step.  If the operator is UNION ALL,
  then all rows generated by both the initial-select and the
  recursive-select are always added to the queue even if they are repeats.
  When determining if a row is repeated, NULL values compare
  equal to one another and not equal to any other value.
<li><p>
  The LIMIT clause, if present, determines the maximum number of rows that
  will ever be added to the recursive table in step 2b.
  Once the limit is reached, the recursion stops.
  A limit of zero means that no rows are ever added to the
  recursive table, and a negative limit means an unlimited number of rows
  may be added to the recursive table.
<li><p>
  The OFFSET clause, if it is present and has a positive value N, prevents the
  first N rows from being added to the recursive table.
  The first N rows are still processed by the recursive-select; they
  just are not added to the recursive table.  Rows are not counted toward
  fulfilling the LIMIT until all OFFSET rows have been skipped.
<li><p>
  If an ORDER BY clause is present, it determines the order in which rows
  are extracted from the queue in step 2a.  If there is no ORDER BY clause,
  then the order in which rows are extracted is undefined.  (In the current
  implementation, the queue becomes a FIFO if the ORDER BY clause is omitted,
  but applications should not depend on that fact since it might change.)
</ul>

<a name="rcex1"></a>

<h4>Recursive Query Examples</h4>

<p>The following query returns all integers between 1 and 1000000:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  cnt(x) AS (VALUES(1) UNION ALL SELECT x+1 FROM cnt WHERE x<1000000)
SELECT x FROM cnt;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Consider how this query works.  The initial-select
runs first and returns a single row
with a single column "1".  This one row is added to the queue.  In
step 2a, that one row is extracted from the queue and added to "cnt".
Then the recursive-select is run in accordance with step 2c generating
a single new row with value "2" to add to the queue.  The queue still
has one row, so step 2 repeats.  The "2" row is extracted and added to the
recursive table by steps 2a and 2b.  Then the row containing 2 is used 
as if it were the complete content of the recursive table and the 
recursive-select is run again, resulting in a row with value "3" being added
to the queue.  This repeats 999999 times until finally at step 2a the
only value on the queue is a row containing 1000000.  That row is
extracted and added to the recursive table.  But this time, the
WHERE clause causes the recursive-select to return no rows, so the
queue remains empty and the recursion stops.

<p><b>Optimization note:</b>
In the discussion above, statements like "insert the row into
the recursive table" should be understood conceptually, not literally.
It sounds as if SQLite is accumulating a huge table
containing one million rows, then going back and scanning that table
from top to bottom to generate the result.  What really happens
is that the query optimizer sees that values in the
"cnt" recursive table are only used once.  So as each row is added to
the recursive table, that row is immediately returned as a result of the main
SELECT statement and then discarded.  SQLite does <em>not</em> accumulate
a temporary table containing a million rows.  Very little memory is
needed to run the above example.  However, if the example had used
UNION instead of UNION ALL, then SQLite would have had to keep around
all previously generated content in order to check for duplicates.
For this reason, programmers should strive to use UNION ALL instead
of UNION when feasible.

<p>Here is a variation on the previous example:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  cnt(x) AS (
     SELECT 1
     UNION ALL
     SELECT x+1 FROM cnt
      LIMIT 1000000
  )
SELECT x FROM cnt;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>There are two differences in this variation.  The initial-select is
"SELECT 1" instead of "VALUES(1)".  But those are just different
syntaxes for saying exactly the same thing.  The other change is that the
recursion is stopped by a LIMIT rather than a WHERE clause.  The use of
LIMIT means that when the one-millionth row is added to the "cnt" table
(and returned by the main SELECT, thanks to the query optimizer)
then the recursion stops immediately regardless of how many rows might be
left in the queue.  On more complex queries, it can sometimes be
difficult to ensure that the WHERE clause will eventually cause the
queue to drain and the recursion to terminate.  But the LIMIT clause will
always stop the recursion.  So it is good practice to always include a
LIMIT clause as a safety if an upper bound on the size of the recursion 
is known.

<a name="rcex2"></a>

<h4>Hierarchical Query Examples</h4>

<p>Consider a table that describes the members of an organization as
well as the chain-of-command within that organization:

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE org(
  name TEXT PRIMARY KEY,
  boss TEXT REFERENCES org,
  height INT,
  -- other content omitted
);
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Every member in the organization has a name, and most members have
a single boss.  (The head of the whole organization has a NULL
"boss" field.) The rows of the "org" table form a tree.

<p>Here is a query that computes the average height over everyone
in Alice's organization, including Alice:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  works_for_alice(n) AS (
    VALUES('Alice')
    UNION
    SELECT name FROM org, works_for_alice
     WHERE org.boss=works_for_alice.n
  )
SELECT avg(height) FROM org
 WHERE org.name IN works_for_alice;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>The next example uses two 
common table expressions in a single WITH clause.  
The following table records a family tree:

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE family(
  name TEXT PRIMARY KEY,
  mom TEXT REFERENCES family,
  dad TEXT REFERENCES family,
  born DATETIME,
  died DATETIME, -- NULL if still alive
  -- other content
);
</pre></blockquote>

<p>The "family" table is similar to the earlier "org" table except that 
now there are two parents to each member.
We want to know all living ancestors of Alice, from oldest to youngest.
An ordinary common table expression, "parent_of", is defined first.  That
ordinary CTE is a view that can be used to find all parents of any
individual.  That ordinary CTE is then used in the "ancestor_of_alice"
recursive CTE.  The recursive CTE is then used in the final query:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  parent_of(name, parent) AS
    (SELECT name, mom FROM family UNION SELECT name, dad FROM family),
  ancestor_of_alice(name) AS
    (SELECT parent FROM parent_of WHERE name='Alice'
     UNION ALL
     SELECT parent FROM parent_of JOIN ancestor_of_alice USING(name))
SELECT family.name FROM ancestor_of_alice, family
 WHERE ancestor_of_alice.name=family.name
   AND died IS NULL
 ORDER BY born;
</pre></blockquote>

<a name="rcex2"></a>

<h4>Queries Against A Graph</h4>

<p>A version control system (VCS) will typically store the evolving
versions of a project as a directed acyclic graph (DAG).  Call each
version of the project a "checkin".  A single
checkin can have zero or more parents.  Most checkins (except the
first) have a single parent, but in the case of a merge, a checkin
might have two or three or more parents.  A schema to keep track of
checkins and the order in which they occur might look something like
this:

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE checkin(
  id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
  mtime INTEGER -- timestamp when this checkin occurred
);
CREATE TABLE derivedfrom(
  xfrom INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES checkin, -- parent checkin
  xto INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES checkin,   -- derived checkin
  PRIMARY KEY(xfrom,xto)
);
CREATE INDEX derivedfrom_back ON derivedfrom(xto,xfrom);
</pre></blockquote>

<p>This graph is acyclic.  And we assume that the mtime of every
child checkin is no less than the mtime of all its parents.  But
unlike the earlier examples, this graph might have multiple paths of
differing lengths between any two checkins.

<p>We want to know the twenty most recent ancestors in time (out of
the thousands and thousands of ancestors in the whole DAG) for
checkin "@BASELINE".  (A query similar to this is used
by the <a href="http://www.fossil-scm.org/">Fossil</a> VCS to
show the N most recent ancestors of a check.  For example:
<a href="http://www.sqlite.org/src/timeline?p=trunk&n=30">http://www.sqlite.org/src/timeline?p=trunk&n=30</a>.)

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  ancestor(id,mtime) AS (
    SELECT id, mtime FROM checkin WHERE id=@BASELINE
    UNION
    SELECT derivedfrom.xfrom, checkin.mtime
      FROM ancestor, derivedfrom, checkin
     WHERE ancestor.id=derivedfrom.xto
       AND checkin.id=derivedfrom.xfrom
     ORDER BY checkin.mtime DESC
     LIMIT 20
  )
SELECT * FROM checkin JOIN ancestor USING(id);
</pre></blockquote>

<p>
The "ORDER BY checkin.mtime DESC" term in the recursive-select makes
the query run much faster by preventing it from following
branches that merge checkins
from long ago.  The ORDER BY forces the recursive-select to focus
on the most recent checkins, the ones we want.  Without the ORDER BY
on the recursive-select, one would be forced to compute the complete set of
thousands of ancestors, sort them all by mtime, then take the top twenty.
The ORDER BY essentially sets up a priority queue that
forces the recursive query to look at the most recent ancestors first,
allowing the use of a LIMIT clause to restrict the scope of the
query to just the checkins of interest.

<a name="withorderby"></a>

<h4>Controlling Depth-First Versus Breadth-First Search Of a Tree
Using ORDER BY</h4>

<p>An ORDER BY clause on the recursive-select can be used to control
whether the search of a tree is depth-first or breadth-first.  To
illustrate, we will use a variation on the "org" table from an example
above, without the "height" column, and with some real data inserted:

<blockquote><pre>
CREATE TABLE org(
  name TEXT PRIMARY KEY,
  boss TEXT REFERENCES org
) WITHOUT ROWID;
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Alice',NULL);
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Bob','Alice');
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Cindy','Alice');
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Dave','Bob');
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Emma','Bob');
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Fred','Cindy');
INSERT INTO org VALUES('Gail','Cindy');
</pre></blockquote>

<p>Here is a query to show the tree structure in a breadth-first pattern:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  under_alice(name,level) AS (
    VALUES('Alice',0)
    UNION ALL
    SELECT org.name, under_alice.level+1
      FROM org JOIN under_alice ON org.name=under_alice.boss
     ORDER BY 2
  )
SELECT substr('..........',1,level*3) || name FROM under_alice;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>The "ORDER BY 2" (which means the same as "ORDER BY under_alice.level+1")
causes higher levels in the organization chart (with smaller "level" values)
to be processed first, resulting in a breadth-first search.  The output is:

<blockquote><pre>
Alice
...Bob
...Cindy
......Dave
......Emma
......Fred
......Gail
</pre></blockquote>

<p>But if we change the ORDER BY clause to add the "DESC" modifier, that will
cause lower levels in the organization (with larger "level" values) to be
processed first by the recursive-select, resulting in a depth-first search:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  under_alice(name,level) AS (
    VALUES('Alice',0)
    UNION ALL
    SELECT org.name, under_alice.level+1
      FROM org JOIN under_alice ON org.name=under_alice.boss
     ORDER BY 2 <b>DESC</b>
  )
SELECT substr('..........',1,level*3) || name FROM under_alice;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>The output of this revised query is:

<blockquote><pre>
Alice
...Bob
......Dave
......Emma
...Cindy
......Fred
......Gail
</pre></blockquote>

<p>When the ORDER BY clause is omitted from the recursive-select, the
queue behaves as a FIFO, which results in a breadth-first search.


<a name="mandelbrot"></a>

<h4>Outlandish Recursive Query Examples</h4>

<p>The following query computes an approximation of the Mandelbrot Set
and outputs the result as ASCII-art:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  xaxis(x) AS (VALUES(-2.0) UNION ALL SELECT x+0.05 FROM xaxis WHERE x<1.2),
  yaxis(y) AS (VALUES(-1.0) UNION ALL SELECT y+0.1 FROM yaxis WHERE y<1.0),
  m(iter, cx, cy, x, y) AS (
    SELECT 0, x, y, 0.0, 0.0 FROM xaxis, yaxis
    UNION ALL
    SELECT iter+1, cx, cy, x*x-y*y + cx, 2.0*x*y + cy FROM m 
     WHERE (x*x + y*y) < 4.0 AND iter<28
  ),
  m2(iter, cx, cy) AS (
    SELECT max(iter), cx, cy FROM m GROUP BY cx, cy
  ),
  a(t) AS (
    SELECT group_concat( substr(' .+*#', 1+min(iter/7,4), 1), '') 
    FROM m2 GROUP BY cy
  )
SELECT group_concat(rtrim(t),x'0a') FROM a;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>In this query, the "xaxis" and "yaxis" CTEs define the grid of points for
which the Mandelbrot Set will be approximated.  Each row in the
"m(iter,cx,cy,x,y)" CTE means that after "iter" iterations, the Mandelbrot
iteration starting at cx,cy has reached point x,y.  The number of iterations
in this example is limited to 28 (which severely limits the resolution of
the computation, but is sufficient for low-resolution ASCII-art output).
The "m2(iter,cx,cy)" CTE holds the maximum number of iterations reached when
starting at point cx,cy.
Finally, each row in the "a(t)" CTE holds a string 
which is a single line of the output ASCII-art.
The SELECT statement at the end just queries the "a" CTE to
retrieve all lines of ASCII-art, one by one.

<p>Running the query above into an SQLite <a href="sqlite.html">command-line shell</a> results
in the following output:

<blockquote><pre>
                                    ....#
                                   ..#*..
                                 ..+####+.
                            .......+####....   +
                           ..##+*##########+.++++
                          .+.##################+.
              .............+###################+.+
              ..++..#.....*#####################+.
             ...+#######++#######################.
          ....+*################################.
 #############################################...
          ....+*################################.
             ...+#######++#######################.
              ..++..#.....*#####################+.
              .............+###################+.+
                          .+.##################+.
                           ..##+*##########+.++++
                            .......+####....   +
                                 ..+####+.
                                   ..#*..
                                    ....#
                                    +.
</pre></blockquote>

<a name="sudoku"></a>

<p>This next query solves a Sudoku puzzle.  The state of the puzzle is
defined by an 81-character string formed by reading entries from the
puzzle box row by row from left to right and then from top to bottom.
Blank squares in the puzzle are denoted by a "." character.  
Thus the input string:

<blockquote>
53..7....6..195....98....6.8...6...34..8.3..17...2...6.6....28....419..5....8..79
</blockquote>

<p>Corresponds to a puzzle like this:

<blockquote>
<table border="1" cellpadding="5">
<tr><td>5<td>3<td> <td> <td>7<td> <td> <td> <td>
<tr><td>6<td> <td> <td>1<td>9<td>5<td> <td> <td>
<tr><td> <td>9<td>8<td> <td> <td> <td> <td>6<td>
<tr><td>8<td> <td> <td> <td>6<td> <td> <td> <td>3
<tr><td>4<td> <td> <td>8<td> <td>3<td> <td> <td>1
<tr><td>7<td> <td> <td> <td>2<td> <td> <td> <td>6
<tr><td> <td>6<td> <td> <td> <td> <td>2<td>8<td>
<tr><td> <td> <td> <td>4<td>1<td>9<td> <td> <td>5
<tr><td> <td> <td> <td> <td>8<td> <td> <td>7<td>9
</table>
</blockquote>

<p>This is the query that solves the puzzle:

<blockquote><pre>
WITH RECURSIVE
  input(sud) AS (
    VALUES('53..7....6..195....98....6.8...6...34..8.3..17...2...6.6....28....419..5....8..79')
  ),
  digits(z, lp) AS (
    VALUES('1', 1)
    UNION ALL SELECT
    CAST(lp+1 AS TEXT), lp+1 FROM digits WHERE lp<9
  ),
  x(s, ind) AS (
    SELECT sud, instr(sud, '.') FROM input
    UNION ALL
    SELECT
      substr(s, 1, ind-1) || z || substr(s, ind+1),
      instr( substr(s, 1, ind-1) || z || substr(s, ind+1), '.' )
     FROM x, digits AS z
    WHERE ind>0
      AND NOT EXISTS (
            SELECT 1
              FROM digits AS lp
             WHERE z.z = substr(s, ((ind-1)/9)*9 + lp, 1)
                OR z.z = substr(s, ((ind-1)%9) + (lp-1)*9 + 1, 1)
                OR z.z = substr(s, (((ind-1)/3) % 3) * 3
                        + ((ind-1)/27) * 27 + lp
                        + ((lp-1) / 3) * 6, 1)
         )
  )
SELECT s FROM x WHERE ind=0;
</pre></blockquote>

<p>The "input" CTE defines the input puzzle.
The "digits" CTE defines a table that holds all digits between 1 and 9.
The work of solving the puzzle is undertaken by the "x" CTE.
An entry in x(s,ind) means that the 81-character string "s" is a valid
sudoku puzzle (it has no conflicts) and that the first unknown character
is at position "ind", or ind==0 if all character positions are filled in.
The goal, then, is to compute entries for "x" with an "ind" of 0.

<p>The solver works by adding new entries to the "x" recursive table.
Given prior entries, the recursive-select tries to fill in a single new
position with all values between 1 and 9 that actually work in that
position.  The complicated "NOT EXISTS" subquery is the magic that
figures out whether or not each candidate "s" string is a valid
sudoku puzzle or not.

<p>The final answer is found by looking for a string with ind==0.
If the original sudoku problem did not have a unique solution, then
the query will return all possible solutions.  If the original problem
was unsolvable, then no rows will be returned.  In this case, the unique
answer is:

<blockquote>
534678912672195348198342567859761423426853791713924856961537284287419635345286179
</blockquote>

<p>The solution was computed in less than 300 milliseconds on a modern
workstation.

<h3>Limitations And Caveats</h3>

<ul>
<li><p>
The WITH clause cannot be used within a <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">CREATE TRIGGER</a>.
<li><p>
The WITH clause must appear at the beginning of a top-level <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statement
or at the beginning of a subquery.  The WITH clause cannot be prepended to
the second or subsequent SELECT statement of a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound select</a>.
<li><p>
The SQL:1999 spec requires that the RECURSIVE keyword follow WITH in any
WITH clause that includes a recursive common table expression.  However, for
compatibility with SqlServer and Oracle, SQLite does not enforce this rule.
</ul>
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            <span id="runningHeaderText">PRAGMA</span>&nbsp;</td>
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    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>

      <h4>
        PRAGMA</h4>
      <p>
        The <a href="#syntax">PRAGMA command</a> is a special command used to modify the
        operation of the SQLite library or to query the library for internal (non-table)

        data. The PRAGMA command is issued using the same interface as other SQLite commands
        (e.g. SELECT, INSERT) but is different in the following important respects:
      </p>
      <ul>
        <li>Specific pragma statements may be removed and others added in future releases
          of SQLite. Use with caution! </li>
        <li>No error messages are generated if an unknown pragma is issued. Unknown pragmas
          are simply ignored. This means if there is a typo in a pragma statement the library
          does not inform the user of the fact. </li>
        <li>Some pragmas take effect during the SQL compilation stage, not the execution stage.
          This means if using the C-language sqlite3_compile(), sqlite3_step(), sqlite3_finalize()

          API (or similar in a wrapper interface), the pragma may be applied to the library



          during the sqlite3_compile() call. </li>


        <li>The pragma command is unlikely to be compatible with any other SQL engine. </li>
      </ul>
      <p>




        The available pragmas fall into four basic categories:</p>
      <ul>


        <li>Pragmas used to <a href="#schema">query the schema</a> of the current database.











        </li>


        <li>Pragmas used to <a href="#modify">modify the operation</a> of the SQLite library
          in some manner, or to query for the current mode of operation. </li>
        <li>Pragmas used to <a href="#version">query or modify the databases two version values</a>,
          the schema-version and the user-version. </li>
        <li>Pragmas used to <a href="#debug">debug the library</a> and verify that database
          files are not corrupted. </li>





      </ul>
      <hr />

      <a name="syntax"></a>
      <h1>
        PRAGMA command syntax</h1>
      <p>
        <table cellpadding="10">
          <tr>
            <td align="right" width="1%" nowrap>
              <i><font color="#ff3434">sql-statement</font></i> ::=</td>
            <td>
              <b><font color="#2c2cf0">PRAGMA </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">name</font></i><b><font
                color="#2c2cf0"> </font></b>[<b><font color="#2c2cf0">= </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">
                  value</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"></font></b>]<b><font color="#2c2cf0"> </font>
                  </b><big>|</big><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><br />



                    PRAGMA </font></b><i><font color="#ff3434">function</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>(</big></font></b><i><font
                      color="#ff3434">arg</font></i><b><font color="#2c2cf0"><big>)</big></font></b></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <p>


























        The pragmas that take an integer <b><i>value</i></b> also accept symbolic names.
        The strings "<b>on</b>", "<b>true</b>", and "<b>yes</b>" are equivalent to <b>1</b>.
        The strings "<b>off</b>", "<b>false</b>", and "<b>no</b>" are equivalent to <b>0</b>.
        These strings are case- insensitive, and do not require quotes. An unrecognized
        string will be treated as <b>1</b>, and will not generate an error. When the <i>value</i>
        is returned it is as an integer.</p>
      <hr />
      <a name="modify"></a>
      <h1>

        Pragmas to modify library operation</h1>






      <ul>


        <a name="pragma_auto_vacuum"></a>




        <li>
          <p>









            <b>PRAGMA auto_vacuum;


              <br />
              PRAGMA auto_vacuum = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>

          <p>
            Query or set the auto-vacuum flag in the database.</p>
          <p>











            Normally, when a transaction that deletes data from a database is committed, the














            database file remains the same size. Unused database file pages are marked as such

            and reused later on, when data is inserted into the database. In this mode the <a







              href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> command is used to reclaim unused space.</p>


          <p>
            When the auto-vacuum flag is set, the database file shrinks when a transaction that
            deletes data is committed (The VACUUM command is not useful in a database with the

            auto-vacuum flag set). To support this functionality the database stores extra information

            internally, resulting in slightly larger database files than would otherwise be


            possible.</p>
          <p>
            It is only possible to modify the value of the auto-vacuum flag before any tables


            have been created in the database. No error message is returned if an attempt to

            modify the auto-vacuum flag is made after one or more tables have been created.

















          </p>
          <a name="pragma_cache_size"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA cache_size;
              <br />
              PRAGMA cache_size = </b><i>Number-of-pages</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>
            Query or change the maximum number of database disk pages that SQLite will hold
            in memory at once. Each page uses about 1.5K of memory. The default cache size is
            2000. If you are doing UPDATEs or DELETEs that change many rows of a database and
            you do not mind if SQLite uses more memory, you can increase the cache size for

            a possible speed improvement.</p>

          <p>
            When you change the cache size using the cache_size pragma, the change only endures

            for the current session. The cache size reverts to the default value when the database
            is closed and reopened. Use the <a href="#pragma_default_cache_size"><b>default_cache_size</b></a>


            pragma to check the cache size permanently.</p>








          <a name="pragma_case_sensitive_like"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA case_sensitive_like;
              <br />
              PRAGMA case_sensitive_like = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>









            The default behavior of the LIKE operator is to ignore case for latin1 characters.









            Hence, by default <b>'a' LIKE 'A'</b> is true. The case_sensitive_like pragma can



            be turned on to change this behavior. When case_sensitive_like is enabled, <b>'a'
              LIKE 'A'</b> is false but <b>'a' LIKE 'a'</b> is still true.</p>
          <a name="pragma_count_changes"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA count_changes;

              <br />





















              PRAGMA count_changes = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>




          <p>





























            Query or change the count-changes flag. Normally, when the count-changes flag is

            not set, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements return no data. When count-changes
            is set, each of these commands returns a single row of data consisting of one integer
            value - the number of rows inserted, modified or deleted by the command. The returned
            change count does not include any insertions, modifications or deletions performed
            by triggers.</p>

          <a name="pragma_default_cache_size"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA default_cache_size;
              <br />






              PRAGMA default_cache_size = </b><i>Number-of-pages</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>







            Query or change the maximum number of database disk pages that SQLite will hold








            in memory at once. Each page uses 1K on disk and about 1.5K in memory. This pragma






            works like the <a href="#pragma_cache_size"><b>cache_size</b></a> pragma with the




            additional feature that it changes the cache size persistently. With this pragma,
            you can set the cache size once and that setting is retained and reused every time

















            you reopen the database.</p>
          <a name="pragma_default_synchronous"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA default_synchronous;</b></p>

          <p>








            This pragma was available in version 2.8 but was removed in version 3.0. It is a
            dangerous pragma whose use is discouraged. To help dissuide users of version 2.8







            from employing this pragma, the documentation will not tell you what it does.</p>

















          <a name="pragma_empty_result_callbacks"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA empty_result_callbacks;
              <br />
              PRAGMA empty_result_callbacks = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>
            Query or change the empty-result-callbacks flag.</p>
          <p>
            The empty-result-callbacks flag affects the sqlite3_exec API only. Normally, when
            the empty-result-callbacks flag is cleared, the callback function supplied to the

            sqlite3_exec() call is not invoked for commands that return zero rows of data. When
            empty-result-callbacks is set in this situation, the callback function is invoked
            exactly once, with the third parameter set to 0 (NULL). This is to enable programs
            that use the sqlite3_exec() API to retrieve column-names even when a query returns
            no data.








          </p>

          <a name="pragma_encoding"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA encoding;
              <br />
              PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-8";
              <br />
              PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16";
              <br />
              PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16le";
              <br />
              PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16be";</b></p>
          <p>
            In first form, if the main database has already been created, then this pragma returns

            the text encoding used by the main database, one of "UTF-8", "UTF-16le" (little-endian
            UTF-16 encoding) or "UTF-16be" (big-endian UTF-16 encoding). If the main database
            has not already been created, then the value returned is the text encoding that
            will be used to create the main database, if it is created by this session.</p>















          <p>
            The second and subsequent forms of this pragma are only useful if the main database
            has not already been created. In this case the pragma sets the encoding that the
            main database will be created with if it is created by this session. The string
            "UTF-16" is interpreted as "UTF-16 encoding using native machine byte-ordering".
            If the second and subsequent forms are used after the database file has already

            been created, they have no effect and are silently ignored.</p>
          <p>
            Once an encoding has been set for a database, it cannot be changed.</p>
          <p>
            Databases created by the ATTACH command always use the same encoding as the main






            database.</p>
          <a name="pragma_full_column_names"></a></li>
        <li>

          <p>





            <b>PRAGMA full_column_names;
              <br />
              PRAGMA full_column_names = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>

          <p>
            Query or change the full-column-names flag. This flag affects the way SQLite names

            columns of data returned by SELECT statements when the expression for the column

            is a table-column name or the wildcard "*". Normally, such result columns are named

            &lt;table-name/alias&gt;&lt;column-name&gt; if the SELECT statement joins two or
            more tables together, or simply &lt;column-name&gt; if the SELECT statement queries



            a single table. When the full-column-names flag is set, such columns are always
            named &lt;table-name/alias&gt; &lt;column-name&gt; regardless of whether or not
            a join is performed.
          </p>








          <p>
            If both the short-column-names and full-column-names are set, then the behaviour
            associated with the full-column-names flag is exhibited.
          </p>

          <a name="pragma_fullfsync"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA fullfsync
              <br />
              PRAGMA fullfsync = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>
            Query or change the fullfsync flag. This flag affects determines whether or not

            the F_FULLFSYNC syncing method is used on systems that support it. The default value
            is off. As of this writing (2006-02-10) only Mac OS X supports F_FULLFSYNC.
          </p>

          <a name="pragma_legacy_file_format"></a></li>








        <li>


          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA legacy_file_format;
              <br />
              PRAGMA legacy_file_format = <i>ON | OFF</i></b></p>
          <p>
            This pragma sets or queries the value of the legacy_file_format flag. When this
            flag is on, new SQLite databases are created in a file format that is readable and
            writable by all versions of SQLite going back to 3.0.0. When the flag is off, new

            databases are created using the latest file format which might to be readable or



            writable by older versions of SQLite.</p>

          <p>


            This flag only effects newly created databases. It has no effect on databases that



            already exists.</p>

          <a name="pragma_page_size"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA page_size;
              <br />


              PRAGMA page_size = </b><i>bytes</i><b>;</b></p>

          <p>
            Query or set the page-size of the database. The page-size may only be set if the


            database has not yet been created. The page size must be a power of two greater
            than or equal to 512 and less than or equal to 8192. The upper limit may be modified
            by setting the value of macro SQLITE_MAX_PAGE_SIZE during compilation. The maximum

            upper bound is 32768.





          </p>






          <a name="pragma_read_uncommitted"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA read_uncommitted;
              <br />
              PRAGMA read_uncommitted = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>
          <p>
            Query, set, or clear READ UNCOMMITTED isolation. The default isolation level for
            SQLite is SERIALIZABLE. Any process or thread can select READ UNCOMMITTED isolation,
            but SERIALIZABLE will still be used except between connections that share a common
            page and schema cache. Cache sharing is enabled using the <a href="capi3ref.html#sqlite3_enable_shared_cache">
              sqlite3_enable_shared_cache()</a> API and is only available between connections
            running the same thread. Cache sharing is off by default.
          </p>














          <a name="pragma_short_column_names"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA short_column_names;

              <br />

              PRAGMA short_column_names = </b><i>0 | 1</i><b>;</b></p>

          <p>
            Query or change the short-column-names flag. This flag affects the way SQLite names
            columns of data returned by SELECT statements when the expression for the column
            is a table-column name or the wildcard "*". Normally, such result columns are named
            &lt;table-name/alias&gt;lt;column-name&gt; if the SELECT statement joins two or
            more tables together, or simply &lt;column-name&gt; if the SELECT statement queries
            a single table. When the short-column-names flag is set, such columns are always
            named &lt;column-name&gt; regardless of whether or not a join is performed.
          </p>
          <p>









            If both the short-column-names and full-column-names are set, then the behaviour






            associated with the full-column-names flag is exhibited.




          </p>








          <a name="pragma_synchronous"></a></li>

        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA synchronous;
              <br />
              PRAGMA synchronous = FULL; </b>(2)<b>






                <br />









                PRAGMA synchronous = NORMAL; </b>(1)<b>






                  <br />
                  PRAGMA synchronous = OFF; </b>(0)</p>
          <p>


            Query or change the setting of the "synchronous" flag. The first (query) form will
            return the setting as an integer. When synchronous is FULL (2), the SQLite database
            engine will pause at critical moments to make sure that data has actually been written
            to the disk surface before continuing. This ensures that if the operating system
            crashes or if there is a power failure, the database will be uncorrupted after rebooting.






            FULL synchronous is very safe, but it is also slow. When synchronous is NORMAL,


            the SQLite database engine will still pause at the most critical moments, but less



            often than in FULL mode. There is a very small (though non-zero) chance that a power
            failure at just the wrong time could corrupt the database in NORMAL mode. But in
            practice, you are more likely to suffer a catastrophic disk failure or some other
            unrecoverable hardware fault. With synchronous OFF (0), SQLite continues without
            pausing as soon as it has handed data off to the operating system. If the application
            running SQLite crashes, the data will be safe, but the database might become corrupted



            if the operating system crashes or the computer loses power before that data has

            been written to the disk surface. On the other hand, some operations are as much
            as 50 or more times faster with synchronous OFF.








          </p>
          <p>
            In SQLite version 2, the default value is NORMAL. For version 3, the default was


            changed to FULL.
          </p>


          <a name="pragma_temp_store"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA temp_store;
              <br />






              PRAGMA temp_store = DEFAULT;</b> (0)<b>




                <br />


                PRAGMA temp_store = FILE;</b> (1)<b>



                  <br />

                  PRAGMA temp_store = MEMORY;</b> (2)</p>
          <p>
            Query or change the setting of the "<b>temp_store</b>" parameter. When temp_store
            is DEFAULT (0), the compile-time C preprocessor macro TEMP_STORE is used to determine



            where temporary tables and indices are stored. When temp_store is MEMORY (2) temporary



            tables and indices are kept in memory. When temp_store is FILE (1) temporary tables
            and indices are stored in a file. The <a href="#pragma_temp_store_directory">temp_store_directory</a>






            pragma can be used to specify the directory containing this file. <b>FILE</b> is
            specified. When the temp_store setting is changed, all existing temporary tables,
            indices, triggers, and views are immediately deleted.</p>

          <p>



            It is possible for the library compile-time C preprocessor symbol TEMP_STORE to





            override this pragma setting. The following table summarizes the interaction of


            the TEMP_STORE preprocessor macro and the temp_store pragma:</p>
          <blockquote>
            <table border="1" cellpadding="2">
              <tr>
                <th valign="bottom">

                  TEMP_STORE</th>
                <th valign="bottom">




                  PRAGMA<br />
                  temp_store</th>




                <th>
                  Storage used for<br />





                  TEMP tables and indices</th>
              </tr>

              <tr>
                <td align="middle">
                  0</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  <em>any</em></td>
                <td align="middle">


                  file</td>



              </tr>

              <tr>


                <td align="middle">








                  1</td>
                <td align="middle">






                  0</td>
                <td align="middle">





                  file</td>
              </tr>

              <tr>
                <td align="middle">
                  1</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  1</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  file</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="middle">
                  1</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  2</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  memory</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="middle">









                  2</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  0</td>



















                <td align="middle">



                  memory</td>

              </tr>




              <tr>
                <td align="middle">



                  2</td>
                <td align="middle">

                  1</td>


                <td align="middle">
                  file</td>
              </tr>

              <tr>
                <td align="middle">






                  2</td>
                <td align="middle">

                  2</td>
                <td align="middle">








                  memory</td>
              </tr>


              <tr>
                <td align="middle">
                  3</td>
                <td align="middle">
                  <em>any</em></td>

                <td align="middle">




                  memory</td>





              </tr>
            </table>
          </blockquote>
          <br />



          <a name="pragma_temp_store_directory"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA temp_store_directory;
              <br />
              PRAGMA temp_store_directory = 'directory-name';</b></p>
          <p>
            Query or change the setting of the "temp_store_directory" - the directory where
            files used for storing temporary tables and indices are kept. This setting lasts
            for the duration of the current connection only and resets to its default value













            for each new connection opened.


          </p>






          <p>
            When the temp_store_directory setting is changed, all existing temporary tables,





            indices, triggers, and viewers are immediately deleted. In practice, temp_store_directory









            should be set immediately after the database is opened.













          </p>
          <p>





            The value <i>directory-name</i> should be enclosed in single quotes. To revert the
            directory to the default, set the <i>directory-name</i> to an empty string, e.g.,
            <i>PRAGMA temp_store_directory = ''</i>. An error is raised if <i>directory-name</i>
            is not found or is not writable.




          </p>

          <p>
            The default directory for temporary files depends on the OS. For Unix/Linux/OSX,
            the default is the is the first writable directory found in the list of: <b>/var/tmp,
              /usr/tmp, /tmp,</b> and <b><i>current-directory</i></b>. For Windows NT, the default
            directory is determined by Windows, generally <b>C:\Documents and Settings\<i>user-name</i>\Local
              Settings\Temp\</b>. Temporary files created by SQLite are unlinked immediately
            after opening, so that the operating system can automatically delete the files when
            the SQLite process exits. Thus, temporary files are not normally visible through


            <i>ls</i> or <i>dir</i> commands.</p>



        </li>








      </ul>
      <hr />
      <a name="schema"></a>
      <h1>

        Pragmas to query the database schema</h1>



      <ul>
        <a name="pragma_database_list"></a>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA database_list;</b></p>

          <p>




            For each open database, invoke the callback function once with information about
            that database. Arguments include the index and the name the database was attached
            with. The first row will be for the main database. The second row will be for the
            database used to store temporary tables.</p>
          <a name="pragma_foreign_key_list"></a></li>
        <li>










          <p>

            <b>PRAGMA foreign_key_list(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>
          <p>
            For each foreign key that references a column in the argument table, invoke the
            callback function with information about that foreign key. The callback function
            will be invoked once for each column in each foreign key.</p>
          <a name="pragma_index_info"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA index_info(</b><i>index-name</i><b>);</b></p>
          <p>
            For each column that the named index references, invoke the callback function once
            with information about that column, including the column name, and the column number.</p>
          <a name="pragma_index_list"></a></li>











        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA index_list(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>
          <p>
            For each index on the named table, invoke the callback function once with information










            about that index. Arguments include the index name and a flag to indicate whether

            or not the index must be unique.</p>

          <a name="pragma_table_info"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA table_info(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>
          <p>
            For each column in the named table, invoke the callback function once with information

            about that column, including the column name, data type, whether or not the column
            can be NULL, and the default value for the column.</p>
        </li>

      </ul>
      <hr />
      <a name="version"></a>
      <h1>
        Pragmas to query/modify version values</h1>
      <ul>
        <a name="pragma_schema_version"></a><a name="pragma_user_version"></a>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA [database.]schema_version;

              <br />





              PRAGMA [database.]schema_version = </b><i>integer </i><b>;






                <br />





                PRAGMA [database.]user_version;
                <br />


                PRAGMA [database.]user_version = </b><i>integer </i><b>;</b>

























          </p>
          <p>
            The pragmas schema_version and user_version are used to set or get the value of
            the schema-version and user-version, respectively. Both the schema-version and the
            user-version are 32-bit signed integers stored in the database header.</p>
          <p>





            The schema-version is usually only manipulated internally by SQLite. It is incremented

            by SQLite whenever the database schema is modified (by creating or dropping a table
            or index). The schema version is used by SQLite each time a query is executed to
            ensure that the internal cache of the schema used when compiling the SQL query matches


            the schema of the database against which the compiled query is actually executed.
            Subverting this mechanism by using "PRAGMA schema_version" to modify the schema-version
            is potentially dangerous and may lead to program crashes or database corruption.

            Use with caution!</p>
          <p>






            The user-version is not used internally by SQLite. It may be used by applications




            for any purpose.</p>
        </li>




      </ul>
      <hr />
      <a name="debug"></a>





      <h1>
        Pragmas to debug the library</h1>
      <ul>
        <a name="pragma_integrity_check"></a>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA integrity_check;</b></p>
          <p>






            The command does an integrity check of the entire database. It looks for out-of-order
            records, missing pages, malformed records, and corrupt indices. If any problems




            are found, then a single string is returned which is a description of all problems.
            If everything is in order, "ok" is returned.</p>
          <a name="pragma_parser_trace"></a></li>
        <li>

          <p>






            <b>PRAGMA parser_trace = ON; </b>(1)<b>
              <br />




              PRAGMA parser_trace = OFF;</b> (0)</p>

          <p>

            Turn tracing of the SQL parser inside of the SQLite library on and off. This is
            used for debugging. This only works if the library is compiled without the NDEBUG









            macro.




          </p>

          <a name="pragma_vdbe_trace"></a></li>
        <li>
          <p>
            <b>PRAGMA vdbe_trace = ON; </b>(1)<b>
              <br />

              PRAGMA vdbe_trace = OFF;</b> (0)</p>
          <p>
            Turn tracing of the virtual database engine inside of the SQLite library on and


            off. This is used for debugging. See the <a href="vdbe.html#trace">VDBE documentation</a>
            for more information.</p>
          <a name="pragma_vdbe_listing"></a></li>
        <li>




          <p>


            <b>PRAGMA vdbe_listing = ON; </b>(1)<b>

              <br />







              PRAGMA vdbe_listing = OFF;</b> (0)</p>


          <p>

            Turn listings of virtual machine programs on and off. With listing is on, the entire
            content of a program is printed just prior to beginning execution. This is like
            automatically executing an EXPLAIN prior to each statement. The statement executes
            normally after the listing is printed. This is used for debugging. See the <a href="vdbe.html#trace">
              VDBE documentation</a> for more information.</p>
        </li>
      </ul>
      <p>
      <hr>




        &nbsp;</p>
      <div id="footer">

        <p>


          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>






        </p>
















      </div>

    </div>




    </div>
  </body>
</html>

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<h1 align="center">PRAGMA Statements</h1>



<p>The PRAGMA statement is an SQL extension specific to SQLite and used to 
modify the operation of the SQLite library or to query the SQLite library for 
internal (non-table) data. The PRAGMA statement is issued using the same
interface as other SQLite commands (e.g. <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>) but is
different in the following important respects:
</p>
<ul>
<li>Specific pragma statements may be removed and others added in future
    releases of SQLite. There is no guarantee of backwards compatibility.
<li>No error messages are generated if an unknown pragma is issued.
    Unknown pragmas are simply ignored. This means if there is a typo in 
    a pragma statement the library does not inform the user of the fact.
<li>Some pragmas take effect during the SQL compilation stage, not the
    execution stage. This means if using the C-language <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a>, 
    <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>, <a href="c3ref/finalize.html">sqlite3_finalize()</a> API (or similar in a wrapper 
    interface), the pragma may run during the <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a> call,
    not during the <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a> call as normal SQL statements do.
    Or the pragma might run during sqlite3_step() just like normal
    SQL statements.  Whether or not the pragma runs during sqlite3_prepare()
    or sqlite3_step() depends on the pragma and on the specific release
    of SQLite.
<li>The pragma command is specific to SQLite and is very unlikely 
    to be compatible with any other SQL database engine.
</ul>

<p>The C-language API for SQLite provides the <a href="c3ref/c_fcntl_busyhandler.html#sqlitefcntlpragma">SQLITE_FCNTL_PRAGMA</a>
<a href="c3ref/file_control.html">file control</a> which gives <a href="vfs.html">VFS</a> implementations the
opportunity to add new PRAGMA statements or to override the meaning of
built-in PRAGMA statements.</p>


<hr /><a name="syntax"></a>
<h2>PRAGMA command syntax</h2>
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#pragma-stmt">pragma-stmt:</a></b>
<button id='x1451' onclick='hideorshow("x1451","x1452")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1452'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram pragma-stmt" src="images/syntax/pragma-stmt.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#pragma-value">pragma-value:</a></b>
<button id='x1453' onclick='hideorshow("x1453","x1454")'>hide</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1454'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram pragma-value" src="images/syntax/pragma-value.gif" />
<p><b><a href="syntaxdiagrams.html#signed-number">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='x1455' onclick='hideorshow("x1455","x1456")'>show</button></p>
 <blockquote id='x1456' style='display:none;'>
 <img alt="syntax diagram signed-number" src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif" />
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>






<p>
A pragma can take either zero or one argument.  The argument is may be either
in parentheses or it may be separated from the pragma name by an equal sign.
The two syntaxes yield identical results.
In many pragmas, the argument is a boolean.  The boolean can be one of:
</p>

<center>
<b>1 yes true on<br>0 no false off</b>
</center>

<p>Keyword arguments can optionally appear in quotes.  
(Example:  <tt>'yes' &#91;FALSE&#93;</tt>.) Some pragmas
takes a string literal as their argument.  When pragma takes a keyword
argument, it will usually also take a numeric equivalent as well.
For example, "0" and "no" mean the same thing, as does "1" and "yes".
When querying the value of a setting, many pragmas return the number
rather than the keyword.</p>

<p>A pragma may have an optional database name before the pragma name.
The database name is the name of an <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a>-ed database or it can be
"main" or "temp" for the main and the TEMP databases.  If the optional
database name is omitted, "main" is assumed.  In some pragmas, the database
name is meaningless and is simply ignored.</p>



<hr /><a name="toc"></a>
<h2>List Of PRAGMAs</h2>

<table border=0 width="100%" cellpadding=10>
<tr><td valign="top" align="left"><ul>
<li><a href="#pragma_application_id">application_id</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_automatic_index">automatic_index</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_busy_timeout">busy_timeout</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_cache_size">cache_size</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_cache_spill">cache_spill</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_case_sensitive_like">case_sensitive_like</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_checkpoint_fullfsync">checkpoint_fullfsync</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_collation_list">collation_list</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_compile_options">compile_options</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_count_changes"><s>count_changes</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_data_store_directory"><s>data_store_directory</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_database_list">database_list</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_default_cache_size"><s>default_cache_size</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_defer_foreign_keys">defer_foreign_keys</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_empty_result_callbacks"><s>empty_result_callbacks</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_encoding">encoding</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_foreign_key_check">foreign_key_check</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_foreign_key_list">foreign_key_list</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_foreign_keys">foreign_keys</a>
</ul></td><td valign="top" align="left"><ul>
<li><a href="#pragma_freelist_count">freelist_count</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_full_column_names"><s>full_column_names</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_fullfsync">fullfsync</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_ignore_check_constraints">ignore_check_constraints</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_incremental_vacuum">incremental_vacuum</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_index_info">index_info</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_index_list">index_list</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_integrity_check">integrity_check</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_journal_mode">journal_mode</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_journal_size_limit">journal_size_limit</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_legacy_file_format">legacy_file_format</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_locking_mode">locking_mode</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_max_page_count">max_page_count</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_mmap_size">mmap_size</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_page_count">page_count</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_page_size">page_size</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_parser_trace"><i>parser_trace</i></a>&sup2;
<li><a href="#pragma_query_only">query_only</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_quick_check">quick_check</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_read_uncommitted">read_uncommitted</a>
</ul></td><td valign="top" align="left"><ul>
<li><a href="#pragma_recursive_triggers">recursive_triggers</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_reverse_unordered_selects">reverse_unordered_selects</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_schema_version">schema_version</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_secure_delete">secure_delete</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_short_column_names"><s>short_column_names</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_shrink_memory">shrink_memory</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_soft_heap_limit">soft_heap_limit</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_stats">stats</a>

<li><a href="#pragma_synchronous">synchronous</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_table_info">table_info</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_temp_store">temp_store</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_temp_store_directory"><s>temp_store_directory</s></a>&sup1;
<li><a href="#pragma_schema_version">user_version</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_vdbe_addoptrace"><i>vdbe_addoptrace</i></a>&sup2;
<li><a href="#pragma_vdbe_debug"><i>vdbe_debug</i></a>&sup2;
<li><a href="#pragma_vdbe_listing"><i>vdbe_listing</i></a>&sup2;
<li><a href="#pragma_vdbe_trace"><i>vdbe_trace</i></a>&sup2;
<li><a href="#pragma_wal_autocheckpoint">wal_autocheckpoint</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_wal_checkpoint">wal_checkpoint</a>
<li><a href="#pragma_writable_schema">writable_schema</a>


</ul></td></tr></table>
<p>Notes:

<ol>
<li>Pragmas whose names are marked through in the list above
are deprecated that are maintained for historical compatibility only.
Do not use the deprecated pragmas in new applications.
Remove deprecated pragmas
from existing applications at your earliest opportunity.</blockquote>
<li>These pragmas are used for debugging SQLite itself and
are only available when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a>.</ol></p>
<a name="pragma_application_id"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA application_id;
       <br>PRAGMA application_id = </b><i>integer </i><b>;</b>
  
<p>    The application_id PRAGMA is used to query or set the 32-bit
       unsigned big-endian "Application ID" integer located at offset
       68 into the <a href="fileformat2.html#database_header">database header</a>.  Applications that use SQLite as their
       <a href="whentouse.html#appfileformat">application file-format</a> should set the Application ID integer to
       a unique integer so that utilities such as 
       <a href="http://www.darwinsys.com/file/">file(1)</a> can determine the specific
       file type rather than just reporting "SQLite3 Database".  A list of
       assigned application IDs can be seen by consulting the
       <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/src/artifact?ci=trunk&filename=magic.txt">magic.txt</a> file in the SQLite source repository.
<a name="pragma_auto_vacuum"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA auto_vacuum;<br>
          PRAGMA auto_vacuum = </b>
           <i>0 | NONE | 1 | FULL | 2 | INCREMENTAL</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or set the auto-vacuum status in the database.</p>

    <p>The default setting for auto-vacuum is 0 or "none",
    unless the <a href="compile.html#default_autovacuum">SQLITE_DEFAULT_AUTOVACUUM</a> compile-time option is used.
    The "none" setting means that auto-vacuum is disabled.
    When auto-vacuum is disabled and data is deleted data from a database,
    the database file remains the same size.  Unused database file 
    pages are added to a "<a href="fileformat2.html#freelist">freelist</a>" and reused for subsequent inserts.  So
    no database file space is lost.  However, the database file does not
    shrink.  In this mode the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a>
    command can be used to rebuild the entire database file and
    thus reclaim unused disk space.</p>

    <p>When the auto-vacuum mode is 1  or "full", the freelist pages are
    moved to the end of the database file and the database file is truncated
    to remove the freelist pages at every transaction commit.
    Note, however, that auto-vacuum only truncates the freelist pages
    from the file.  Auto-vacuum does not defragment the database nor
    repack individual database pages the way that the
    <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> command does.  In fact, because
    it moves pages around within the file, auto-vacuum can actually
    make fragmentation worse.</p>

    <p>Auto-vacuuming is only possible if the database stores some
    additional information that allows each database page to be
    traced backwards to its referrer.  Therefore, auto-vacuuming must
    be turned on before any tables are created.  It is not possible
    to enable or disable auto-vacuum after a table has been created.</p>

    <p>When the value of auto-vacuum is 2 or "incremental" then the additional
    information needed to do auto-vacuuming is stored in the database file
    but auto-vacuuming does not occur automatically at each commit as it
    does with auto_vacuum=full.  In incremental mode, the separate
    <a href="pragma.html#pragma_incremental_vacuum">incremental_vacuum</a> pragma must
    be invoked to cause the auto-vacuum to occur.</p>

    <p>The database connection can be changed between full and incremental
    autovacuum mode at any time.  However, changing from
    "none" to "full" or "incremental" can only occur when the database 
    is new (no tables
    have yet been created) or by running the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> command.  To
    change auto-vacuum modes, first use the auto_vacuum pragma to set
    the new desired mode, then invoke the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> command to 
    reorganize the entire database file.  To change from "full" or
    "incremental" back to "none" always requires running <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> even
    on an empty database.
    </p>











    <p>When the auto_vacuum pragma is invoked with no arguments, it
    returns the current auto_vacuum mode.</p>
<a name="pragma_automatic_index"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA automatic_index;
     <br>PRAGMA automatic_index = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query, set, or clear the <a href="optoverview.html#autoindex">automatic indexing</a> capability.
    <p><a href="optoverview.html#autoindex">Automatic indexing</a> is enabled by default as of version 3.7.17,
    but this might change in future releases of SQLite.
<a name="pragma_busy_timeout"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA busy_timeout;
         <br>PRAGMA busy_timeout = </b><i>milliseconds</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query or change the setting of the
    <a href="c3ref/busy_timeout.html">busy timeout</a>.
    This pragma is an alternative to the <a href="c3ref/busy_timeout.html">sqlite3_busy_timeout()</a> C-language
    interface which is made available as a pragma for use with language
    bindings that do not provide direct access to <a href="c3ref/busy_timeout.html">sqlite3_busy_timeout()</a>.
<a name="pragma_cache_size"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA cache_size;
       <br>PRAGMA cache_size = </b><i>pages</i><b>;
       <br>PRAGMA cache_size = -</b><i>kibibytes</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the suggested maximum number of database disk pages
    that SQLite will hold in memory at once per open database file.  Whether
    or not this suggestion is honored is at the discretion of the
    <a href="c3ref/pcache_methods2.html">Application Defined Page Cache</a>.
    The default page cache that is built into SQLite honors the request,
    however alternative application-defined page cache implementations
    may choose to interpret the suggested cache size in different ways
    or to ignore it all together.
    The default suggested cache size is 2000 pages.</p>

    <p>If the argument N is positive then the suggested cache size is set 
    to N. If the argument N is negative, then the
    number of cache pages is adjusted to use approximately N*1024 bytes
    of memory.
    <i>Backwards compatibility note:</i>
    The behavior of cache_size with a negative N
    was different in SQLite versions prior to 3.7.10.  In
    version 3.7.9 and earlier, the number of pages in the cache was set
    to the absolute value of N.</p>

    <p>When you change the cache size using the cache_size pragma, the
    change only endures for the current session.  The cache size reverts
    to the default value when the database is closed and reopened.</p>


<a name="pragma_cache_spill"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA cache_spill;
         <br>PRAGMA cache_spill=</b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>The cache_spill pragma enables or disables the ability of the pager
    to spill dirty cache pages to the database file in the middle of a 
    transaction.  Cache_spill is enabled by default and most applications
    should leave it that way as cache spilling is usually advantageous.
    However, a cache spill has the side-effect of acquiring an
    <a href="lockingv3.html#excl_lock">EXCLUSIVE lock</a> on the database file.  Hence, some applications that
    have large long-running transactions may want to disable cache spilling
    in order to prevent the application from acquiring an exclusive lock
    on the database until the moment that the transaction <a href="lang_transaction.html">COMMIT</a>s.
<a name="pragma_case_sensitive_like"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA case_sensitive_like = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>The default behavior of the <a href="lang_expr.html#like">LIKE</a> operator is to ignore case
    for ASCII characters. Hence, by default <b>'a' LIKE 'A'</b> is
    true.  The case_sensitive_like pragma installs a new application-defined
    LIKE function that is either case sensitive or insensitive depending
    on the value of the case_sensitive_like pragma.
    When case_sensitive_like is disabled, the default LIKE behavior is
    expressed.  When case_sensitive_like is enabled, case becomes
    significant.  So, for example,
    <b>'a' LIKE 'A'</b> is false but <b>'a' LIKE 'a'</b> is still true.</p>

    <p>This pragma uses <a href="c3ref/create_function.html">sqlite3_create_function()</a> to overload the
    LIKE and GLOB functions, which may override previous implementations
    of LIKE and GLOB registered by the application.</p>
<a name="pragma_checkpoint_fullfsync"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA checkpoint_fullfsync
       <br>PRAGMA checkpoint_fullfsync = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query or change the fullfsync flag for <a href="wal.html#ckpt">checkpoint</a> operations.
    If this flag is set, then the F_FULLFSYNC syncing method is used
    during checkpoint operations on systems that support F_FULLFSYNC. 
    The default value of the checkpoint_fullfsync flag
    is off.  Only Mac OS-X supports F_FULLFSYNC.</p>

    <p>If the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_fullfsync">fullfsync</a> flag is set, then the F_FULLFSYNC syncing
    method is used for all sync operations and the checkpoint_fullfsync
    setting is irrelevant.</p>
<a name="pragma_collation_list"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA collation_list;</b></p>
    <p>Return a list of the collating sequences defined for the current
    database connection.</p>
<a name="pragma_compile_options"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA compile_options;</b></p>
    <p>This pragma returns the names of <a href="compile.html">compile-time options</a> used when
    building SQLite, one option per row.  The "SQLITE_" prefix is omitted
    from the returned option names.  See also the
    <a href="c3ref/compileoption_get.html">sqlite3_compileoption_get()</a> C/C++ interface and the
    <a href="lang_corefunc.html#sqlite_compileoption_get">sqlite_compileoption_get()</a> SQL functions.</p>
<a name="pragma_count_changes"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA count_changes;
       <br>PRAGMA count_changes = </b>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the count-changes flag. Normally, when the
    count-changes flag is not set, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a> statements
    return no data. When count-changes is set, each of these commands 
    returns a single row of data consisting of one integer value - the
    number of rows inserted, modified or deleted by the command. The 
    returned change count does not include any insertions, modifications
    or deletions performed by triggers, or any changes made automatically
    by <a href="foreignkeys.html#fk_actions">foreign key actions</a>.</p>


    <p>Another way to get the row change counts is to use the


    <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a> or <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a> interfaces.
    There is a subtle different, though.  When an INSERT, UPDATE, or
    DELETE is run against a view using an <a href="lang_createtrigger.html#instead_of_trigger">INSTEAD OF trigger</a>,
    the count_changes pragma reports the number of rows in the view
    that fired the trigger, whereas <a href="c3ref/changes.html">sqlite3_changes()</a> and
    <a href="c3ref/total_changes.html">sqlite3_total_changes()</a> do not.

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_data_store_directory"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA data_store_directory;
       <br>PRAGMA data_store_directory = '</b><i>directory-name</i><b>';</b></p>
    <p>Query or change the value of the <a href="c3ref/data_directory.html">sqlite3_data_directory</a> global
    variable, which windows operating-system interface backends use to
    determine where to store database files specified using a relative
    pathname.</p>

    <p>Changing the data_store_directory setting is <u>not</u> threadsafe.
    Never change the data_store_directory setting if another thread
    within the application is running any SQLite interface at the same time.
    Doing so results in undefined behavior.  Changing the data_store_directory
    setting writes to the <a href="c3ref/data_directory.html">sqlite3_data_directory</a> global
    variable and that global variable is not protected by a mutex.</p>

    <p>This facility is provided for WinRT which does not have an OS
    mechanism for reading or changing the current working directory.
    The use of this pragma in any other context is discouraged and may
    be disallowed in future releases.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_database_list"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA database_list;</b></p>
    <p>This pragma works like a query to return one row for each database
    attached to the current database connection.
    The second column is the "main" for the main database file, "temp"
    for the database file used to store TEMP objects, or the name of the
    ATTACHed database for other database files.
    The third column is the name of the database file itself, or an empty
    string if the database is not associated with a file.</p>
<a name="pragma_default_cache_size"></a>

<hr>
    <b>PRAGMA default_cache_size;
       <br>PRAGMA default_cache_size = </b><i>Number-of-pages</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>This pragma queries or sets the suggested maximum number of pages
    of disk cache that will be allocated per open database file.
    The difference between this pragma and <a href="pragma.html#pragma_cache_size">cache_size</a> is that the
    value set here persists across database connections.
    The value of the default cache size is stored in the 4-byte
    big-endian integer located at offset 48 in the header of the
    database file.
    </p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_defer_foreign_keys"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA defer_foreign_keys
       <br>PRAGMA defer_foreign_keys = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>When the defer_foreign_keys <a href="pragma.html#syntax">PRAGMA</a> is on,
    enforcement of all <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> is delayed until the
    outermost transaction is committed.  The defer_foreign_keys pragma
    defaults to OFF so that foreign key constraints are only deferred if
    they are created as "DEFERRABLE INITIALLY DEFERRED".  The 
    defer_foreign_keys pragma is automatically switched off at each
    COMMIT or ROLLBACK.  Hence, the defer_foreign_keys pragma must be
    separately enabled for each transaction.  This pragma is
    only meaningful if foreign key constraints are enabled, of course.</p>

    <p>The <a href="c3ref/db_status.html">sqlite3_db_status</a>(db,<a href="c3ref/c_dbstatus_options.html#sqlitedbstatusdeferredfks">SQLITE_DBSTATUS_DEFERRED_FKS</a>,...)
    C-language interface can be used during a transaction to determine 
    if there are deferred and unresolved foreign key constraints.</p>
<a name="pragma_empty_result_callbacks"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA empty_result_callbacks;

       <br>PRAGMA empty_result_callbacks = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the empty-result-callbacks flag.</p>

    <p>The empty-result-callbacks flag affects the <a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a> API only.
    Normally, when the empty-result-callbacks flag is cleared, the
    callback function supplied to the <a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a> is not invoked
    for commands that return zero rows of data.  When empty-result-callbacks
    is set in this situation, the callback function is invoked exactly once,
    with the third parameter set to 0 (NULL). This is to enable programs  
    that use the <a href="c3ref/exec.html">sqlite3_exec()</a> API to retrieve column-names even when
    a query returns no data.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_encoding"></a>

<hr>
   <p><b>PRAGMA encoding;

       <br>PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-8";

       <br>PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16";

       <br>PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16le";

       <br>PRAGMA encoding = "UTF-16be";</b></p>

    <p>In first form, if the main database has already been
    created, then this pragma returns the text encoding used by the
    main database, one of "UTF-8", "UTF-16le" (little-endian UTF-16
    encoding) or "UTF-16be" (big-endian UTF-16 encoding).  If the main
    database has not already been created, then the value returned is the
    text encoding that will be used to create the main database, if 
    it is created by this session.</p>

    <p>The second through fifth forms of this pragma
    set the encoding that the main database will be created with if
    it is created by this session. The string "UTF-16" is interpreted
    as "UTF-16 encoding using native machine byte-ordering".  It is not
    possible to change the text encoding of a database after it has been
    created and any attempt to do so will be silently ignored.</p>

    <p>Once an encoding has been set for a database, it cannot be changed.</p>

    <p>Databases created by the <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a> command always use the same encoding
    as the main database.  An attempt to <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a> a database with a different
    text encoding from the "main" database will fail.</p>
<a name="pragma_foreign_key_check"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA foreign_key_check;
        <br>PRAGMA foreign_key_check(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></b></p>


    <p>The foreign_key_check pragma checks the database, or the table
    called "<i>table-name</i>", for 
    <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> that are violated and returns one row of
    output for each violation.  There are four columns in each result row.
    The first column is the name of the table that contains the REFERENCES
    clause.  The second column is the <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">rowid</a> of the row that
    contains the invalid REFERENCES clause.  The third column is the name
    of the table that is referred to. The fourth column is the index of
    the specific foreign key constraint that failed.  The fourth column
    in the output of the foreign_key_check pragma is the same integer as
    the first column in the output of the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_foreign_key_list">foreign_key_list pragma</a>.
    When a "<i>table-name</i>" is specified, the only foreign key constraints
    checked are those created by REFERENCES clauses in the
    CREATE TABLE statement for <i>table-name</i>.</p>
<a name="pragma_foreign_key_list"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA foreign_key_list(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>

    <p>This pragma returns one row for each <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a>
    created by a REFERENCES clause in the CREATE TABLE statement of
    table "<i>table-name</i>".
<a name="pragma_foreign_keys"></a>
<hr>
     <p><b>PRAGMA foreign_keys;

       <br>PRAGMA foreign_keys = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query, set, or clear the enforcement of <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a>.


    <p>This pragma is a no-op within a transaction; foreign key constraint
       enforcement may only be enabled or disabled when there is no pending
       <a href="lang_transaction.html">BEGIN</a> or <a href="lang_savepoint.html">SAVEPOINT</a>.

    <p>Changing the foreign_keys setting affects the execution of
       all statements prepared

       using the database connection, including those prepared before the
       setting was changed. Any existing statements prepared using the legacy 
       <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a> interface may fail with an <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_SCHEMA</a> error
       after the foreign_keys setting is changed.



    <p>As of SQLite <a href="releaselog/3_6_19.html">version 3.6.19</a>, the default setting for foreign
       key enforcement is OFF.  However, that might change in a future
       release of SQLite.  The default setting for foreign key enforcement
       can be specified at compile-time using the <a href="compile.html#default_foreign_keys">SQLITE_DEFAULT_FOREIGN_KEYS</a>
       preprocessor macro.  To minimize future problems, applications should
       set the foreign key enforcement flag as required by the application
       and not depend on the default setting.
<a name="pragma_freelist_count"></a>
<hr>


    <p><b>PRAGMA freelist_count;</b></p>
    <p>Return the number of unused pages in the database file.</p>
<a name="pragma_full_column_names"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA full_column_names;

       <br>PRAGMA full_column_names = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the full_column_names flag. This flag together 
    with the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_short_column_names">short_column_names</a> flag determine
    the way SQLite assigns names to result columns of <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statements.
    Result columns are named by applying the following rules in order:
    <ol>
    <li><p>If there is an AS clause on the result, then the name of
        the column is the right-hand side of the AS clause.</p></li>
    <li><p>If the result is a general expression, not a just the name of
        a source table column,
        then the name of the result is a copy of the expression text.</p></li>
    <li><p>If the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_short_column_names">short_column_names</a> pragma is ON, then the name of the
        result is the name of the source table column without the 
        source table name prefix:  COLUMN.</p></li>
    <li><p>If both pragmas <a href="pragma.html#pragma_short_column_names">short_column_names</a> and <a href="pragma.html#pragma_full_column_names">full_column_names</a>
        are OFF then case (2) applies.
        </p></li>
    <li><p>The name of the result column is a combination of the source table
        and source column name:  TABLE.COLUMN</p></li>
    </ol>

    

    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists


    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_fullfsync"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA fullfsync
       <br>PRAGMA fullfsync = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query or change the fullfsync flag. This flag
    determines whether or not the F_FULLFSYNC syncing method is used
    on systems that support it.  The default value of the fullfsync flag
    is off.  Only Mac OS X supports F_FULLFSYNC.</p>

    <p>See also <a href="pragma.html#pragma_checkpoint_fullfsync">checkpoint_fullfsync</a>.</p>
<a name="pragma_ignore_check_constraints"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA ignore_check_constraints  = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>This pragma enables or disables the enforcement of CHECK constraints.
    The default setting is off, meaning that CHECK constraints are
    enforced by default.</p>
<a name="pragma_incremental_vacuum"></a>
<hr>

    <p><b>PRAGMA incremental_vacuum</b><i>(N)</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>The incremental_vacuum pragma causes up to <i>N</i> pages to
    be removed from the <a href="fileformat2.html#freelist">freelist</a>.  The database file is truncated by


    the same amount.  The incremental_vacuum pragma has no effect if
    the database is not in
    <a href="#pragma_auto_vacuum">auto_vacuum=incremental</a> mode
    or if there are no pages on the freelist.  If there are fewer than
    <i>N</i> pages on the freelist, or if <i>N</i> is less than 1, or
    if <i>N</i> is omitted entirely, then the entire freelist is cleared.</p>
<a name="pragma_index_info"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA index_info(</b><i>index-name</i><b>);</b></p>
    <p>This pragma returns one row each column in the named index.
    The first column of the result is the rank of the column within the index.
    The second column of the result is the rank of the column within the
    table. The third column of output is the name of the column being indexed.
    </p>
<a name="pragma_index_list"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA index_list(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>


    <p>This pragma returns one row for each index associated with the
    given table.
    Columns of the result set include the
    index name and a flag to indicate whether or not the index is UNIQUE.



    </p>
<a name="pragma_integrity_check"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA integrity_check;
    <br>PRAGMA integrity_check(</b><i>N</i><b>)</b></p>
    <p>This pragma does an integrity check of the entire database.  The
    integrity_check pragma
    looks for out-of-order records, missing pages, malformed records, and
    corrupt indices.
    If the integrity_check pragma finds problems, strings are returned
    (as multiple rows with a single column per row) which describe
    the problems.  Pragma integrity_check will return at most <i>N</i>
    errors will be reported before the analysis quits, with N defaulting
    to 100.  If pragma integrity_check finds no errors are found, a
    single row with the value 'ok' is returned.</p>
<a name="pragma_journal_mode"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA journal_mode;
       <br>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.journal_mode;
       <br>PRAGMA journal_mode
              = <i>DELETE | TRUNCATE | PERSIST | MEMORY | WAL | OFF</i>
       <br>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.journal_mode
              = <i>DELETE | TRUNCATE | PERSIST | MEMORY | WAL | OFF</i></b></p>

    <p>This pragma queries or sets the journal mode for databases


    associated with the current <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a>.</p>

    <p>The first two forms of this pragma query the current journaling
    mode for <i>database</i>.  When <i>database</i> is omitted, the
    "main" database is queried.</p>

    <p>The last two forms change the journaling mode.  The 4th form
    changes the journaling mode for a specific database connection named.
    Use "main" for the main database (the database that was opened by
    the original <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open()</a>, <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open16()</a>, or
    <a href="c3ref/open.html">sqlite3_open_v2()</a> interface call) and use "temp" for database
    that holds TEMP tables.  The 3rd form changes the journaling mode
    on all databases attached to the connection.
    The new journal mode is returned.  If the journal mode
    could not be changed, the original journal mode is returned.</p>

    <p>The DELETE journaling mode is the normal behavior.  In the DELETE
    mode, the rollback journal is deleted at the conclusion of each
    transaction.  Indeed, the delete operation is the action that causes
    the transaction to commit.
    (See the document titled <a href="atomiccommit.html">
    Atomic Commit In SQLite</a> for additional detail.)</p>

    <p>The TRUNCATE journaling mode commits transactions by truncating
    the rollback journal to zero-length instead of deleting it.  On many
    systems, truncating a file is much faster than deleting the file since
    the containing directory does not need to be changed.</p>

    <p>The PERSIST journaling mode prevents the rollback journal from
    being deleted at the end of each transaction.  Instead, the header
    of the journal is overwritten with zeros.  This will prevent other
    database connections from rolling the journal back.  The PERSIST
    journaling mode is useful as an optimization on platforms where
    deleting or truncating a file is much more expensive than overwriting
    the first block of a file with zeros.  See also:
    <a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_size_limit">PRAGMA journal_size_limit</a> and <a href="compile.html#default_journal_size_limit">SQLITE_DEFAULT_JOURNAL_SIZE_LIMIT</a>.</p>

    <p>The MEMORY journaling mode stores the rollback journal in 
    volatile RAM.  This saves disk I/O but at the expense of database
    safety and integrity.  If the application using SQLite crashes in
    the middle of a transaction when the MEMORY journaling mode is set,
    then the database file will very likely go corrupt.</p>

    <p>The WAL journaling mode uses a <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> instead of a
    rollback journal to implement transactions.  The WAL journaling mode
    is persistent; after being set it stays in effect
    across multiple database connections and after closing and
    reopening the database.  A database in WAL journaling mode
    can only be accessed by SQLite version 3.7.0 or later.</p>

    <p>The OFF journaling mode disables the rollback journal completely.
    No rollback journal is ever created and hence there is never a rollback
    journal to delete.  The OFF journaling mode disables the atomic
    commit and rollback capabilities of SQLite. The <a href="lang_transaction.html">ROLLBACK</a> command
    no longer works; it behaves in an undefined way.  Applications must
    avoid using the <a href="lang_transaction.html">ROLLBACK</a> command when the journal mode is OFF.
    If the application crashes
    in the middle of a transaction when the OFF journaling mode is
    set, then the database file will very likely go corrupt.</p>

    <p>Note that the journal_mode for an <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory database</a>
    is either MEMORY or OFF and can not be changed to a different value.
    An attempt to change the journal_mode of an <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory database</a> to
    any setting other than MEMORY or OFF is ignored.  Note also that
    the journal_mode cannot be changed while a transaction is active.</p>
<a name="pragma_journal_size_limit"></a>
<hr>

    <p><b>
    PRAGMA journal_size_limit<br>
    PRAGMA journal_size_limit = </b><i>N</i> <b>;</b>

  <p>If a database connection is operating in



  <a href="pragma.html#pragma_locking_mode">exclusive locking mode</a> or in
  <a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">persistent journal mode</a> 
  (PRAGMA journal_mode=persist) then
  after committing a transaction the <a href="lockingv3.html#rollback">rollback journal</a> file may remain in
  the file-system. This increases performance for subsequent transactions
  since overwriting an existing file is faster than append to a file,
  but it also consumes
  file-system space. After a large transaction (e.g. a <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a>),
  the rollback journal file may consume a very large amount of space.

  <p>Similarly, in <a href="wal.html">WAL mode</a>, the write-ahead log file is not truncated
  following a <a href="wal.html#ckpt">checkpoint</a>.  Instead, SQLite reuses the existing file
  for subsequent WAL entries since overwriting is faster than appending.




  <p>The journal_size_limit pragma may be used to limit the size of 
  rollback-journal and WAL files left
  in the file-system after transactions or checkpoints.
  Each time a transaction is committed or a WAL file resets, SQLite 
  compares the size of the rollback journal file or WAL file left in 
  the file-system to the size limit
  set by this pragma and if the journal or WAL file is larger 
  it is truncated to the limit.

  <p>The second form of the pragma listed above is used to set a new limit
  in bytes for the specified database.  A negative number implies no limit.
  To always truncate rollback journals and WAL files to their minimum size, 
  set the journal_size_limit to zero.
  Both the first and second forms of the pragma listed above return a single
  result row containing a single integer column - the value of the journal
  size limit in bytes. The default journal size limit is -1 (no limit).  The
  <a href="compile.html#default_journal_size_limit">SQLITE_DEFAULT_JOURNAL_SIZE_LIMIT</a> preprocessor macro can be used to change
  the default journal size limit at compile-time.</p>


  <p>This pragma only operates on the single database specified prior
  to the pragma name (or on the "main" database if no database is specified.)
  There is no way to change the journal size limit on all attached databases

  using a single PRAGMA statement.  The size limit must be set separately for
  each attached database.
<a name="pragma_legacy_file_format"></a>

<hr>
   <p><b>PRAGMA legacy_file_format;
       <br>PRAGMA legacy_file_format = <i>boolean</i></b></p>
    <p>This pragma sets or queries the value of the legacy_file_format
    flag.  When this flag is on, new SQLite databases are created in
    a file format that is readable and writable by all versions of
    SQLite going back to 3.0.0.  When the flag is off, new databases
    are created using the latest file format which might not be
    readable or writable by versions of SQLite prior to 3.3.0.</p>

    <p>When the legacy_file_format pragma is issued with no argument,
    it returns the setting of the flag.  This pragma does <u>not</u> tell
    which file format the current database is using; it tells what format
    will be used by any newly created databases.</p>

    <p>The legacy_file_format pragma is initialized to OFF when an existing
    database in the newer file format is first opened.</p>

    <p>The default file format is set by the
    <a href="compile.html#default_file_format">SQLITE_DEFAULT_FILE_FORMAT</a> compile-time option.</p>
<a name="pragma_locking_mode"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA locking_mode;
       <br>PRAGMA locking_mode = <i>NORMAL | EXCLUSIVE</i></b></p>
    <p>This pragma sets or queries the database connection locking-mode. 
    The locking-mode is either NORMAL or EXCLUSIVE.

    <p>In NORMAL locking-mode (the default unless overridden at compile-time
    using <a href="compile.html#default_locking_mode">SQLITE_DEFAULT_LOCKING_MODE</a>), a database connection
    unlocks the database file at the conclusion of each read or
    write transaction. When the locking-mode is set to EXCLUSIVE, the
    database connection never releases file-locks. The first time the
    database is read in EXCLUSIVE mode, a shared lock is obtained and 
    held. The first time the database is written, an exclusive lock is
    obtained and held.</p>

    <p>Database locks obtained by a connection in EXCLUSIVE mode may be
    released either by closing the database connection, or by setting the
    locking-mode back to NORMAL using this pragma and then accessing the
    database file (for read or write). Simply setting the locking-mode to
    NORMAL is not enough - locks are not released until the next time
    the database file is accessed.</p>



    <p>There are three reasons to set the locking-mode to EXCLUSIVE.
    <ol>
    <li>The application wants to prevent other processes from
        accessing the database file.
    <li>The number of system calls for filesystem operations is reduced,
        possibly resulting in a small performance increase.
    <li><a href="wal.html">WAL</a> databases can be accessed in EXCLUSIVE mode without the
        use of shared memory. 
        (<a href="wal.html#noshm">Additional information</a>)
    </ol>
    </p>

    <p>When the locking_mode pragma specifies a particular database,
    for example:</p>

    <blockquote>



PRAGMA <b>main.</b>locking_mode=EXCLUSIVE;
    </blockquote>

    <p>Then the locking mode applies only to the named database.  If no
    database name qualifier precedes the "locking_mode" keyword then
    the locking mode is applied to all databases, including any new
    databases added by subsequent <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a> commands.</p>

   <p>The "temp" database (in which TEMP tables and indices are stored)
   and <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory databases</a>
   always uses exclusive locking mode.  The locking mode of temp and
   <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory databases</a> cannot
   be changed.  All other databases use the normal locking mode by default
   and are affected by this pragma.</p>

   <p>If the locking mode is EXCLUSIVE when first entering
   <a href="wal.html">WAL journal mode</a>, then the locking mode cannot be changed to
   NORMAL until after exiting WAL journal mode. 
   If the locking mode is NORMAL when first entering WAL
   journal mode, then the locking mode can be changed between NORMAL and
   EXCLUSIVE and back again at any time and without needing to exit
   WAL journal mode.</p>
<a name="pragma_max_page_count"></a>
<hr>





    <p><b>PRAGMA max_page_count;
       <br>PRAGMA max_page_count = </b><i>N</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query or set the maximum number of pages in the database file.
    Both forms of the pragma return the maximum page count.  The second
    form attempts to modify the maximum page count.  The maximum page
    count cannot be reduced below the current database size.
    </p>
<a name="pragma_mmap_size"></a>
<hr>
    <p><br><b>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.mmap_size;
         <br>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.mmap_size=</b><i>N</i></p>

    <p>Query or change the maximum number of bytes that are set
       aside for memory-mapped I/O on a single database.  The first form
       (without an argument) queries the current limit.  The second
       form (with a numeric argument) sets the limit for the specified
       database, or for all databases if the optional database name is
       omitted.  In the second form, if the database name is omitted, the
       limit that is set becomes the default limit for all databases that
       are added to the <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a> by subsequent <a href="lang_attach.html">ATTACH</a>
       statements.</p>

    <p>The argument N is the maximum number of bytes of the database file
       that will be accessed using memory-mapped I/O.  If N is zero then
       memory mapped I/O is disabled.  If N is negative, then the limit
       reverts to the default value determined by the most recent
       <a href="c3ref/config.html">sqlite3_config</a>(<a href="c3ref/c_config_covering_index_scan.html#sqliteconfigmmapsize">SQLITE_CONFIG_MMAP_SIZE</a>), or to the compile
       time default determined by <a href="compile.html#default_mmap_size">SQLITE_DEFAULT_MMAP_SIZE</a> if not
       start-time limit has been set.</p>

    <p>The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_mmap_size">PRAGMA mmap_size</a> statement will never increase the amount
       of address space used for memory-mapped I/O above the
       hard limit set by the <a href="compile.html#max_mmap_size">SQLITE_MAX_MMAP_SIZE</a> compile-time option,
       nor the hard limit set start-time by the second argument to
       sqlite3_config(<a href="c3ref/c_config_covering_index_scan.html#sqliteconfigmmapsize">SQLITE_CONFIG_MMAP_SIZE</a>)</p>


    <p>The size of the memory-mapped I/O region cannot be changed while
       the memory-mapped I/O region is in active use, to avoid unmapping
       memory out from under running SQL statements.  For this reason,
       the mmap_size pragma may be a no-op if the prior mmap_size is non-zero
       and there are other SQL statements running concurrently on the same
       <a href="c3ref/sqlite3.html">database connection</a>.</p>
<a name="pragma_page_count"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA page_count;</b></p>
    <p>Return the total number of pages in the database file.</p>
<a name="pragma_page_size"></a>
<hr>
   <p><b>PRAGMA page_size;
       <br>PRAGMA page_size = </b><i>bytes</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query or set the page size of the database. The page
    size must be a power of two between 512 and 65536 inclusive.
    </p>

    <p>When a new database is created, SQLite assigned a default page size
    based on information received from the xSectorSize and 
    xDeviceCharacteristics methods of the <a href="c3ref/io_methods.html">sqlite3_io_methods</a> object
    of the newly created database file.  The page_size pragma will only
    cause an immediate change in the
    page size if it is issued while the database is still empty, prior 
    to the first CREATE TABLE statement.  If the page_size pragma is
    used to specify a new page size just prior to
    running the <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> command and if the database is not in
    <a href="wal.html">WAL journal mode</a> then <a href="lang_vacuum.html">VACUUM</a> will change the page
    size to the new value.</p>


    <p>If SQLite is compiled with the SQLITE_ENABLE_ATOMIC_WRITE option,
    then the default page size is chosen to be the largest page size
    less than or equal to SQLITE_MAX_DEFAULT_PAGE_SIZE for which atomic
    write is enabled according to the
    xDeviceCharacteristics method of the <a href="c3ref/io_methods.html">sqlite3_io_methods</a> object for
    the database file.  If the SQLITE_ENABLE_ATOMIC_WRITE option is
    disabled or if xDeviceCharacteristics reports no suitable atomic
    write page sizes, then the default page size is the larger of 
    SQLITE_DEFAULT_PAGE_SIZE
    and the sector size as reported by the xSectorSize method of the
    <a href="c3ref/io_methods.html">sqlite3_io_methods</a> object, but not more than 
    SQLITE_MAX_DEFAULT_PAGE_SIZE.  The normal configuration for SQLite
    running on workstations is for atomic write to be
    disabled, for the maximum page size to be set to 65536, for
    SQLITE_DEFAULT_PAGE_SIZE to be 1024, and for the
    maximum default page size to be set to 8192.  The default xSectorSize
    method on unix workstation implementations always reports a sector size
    of 512 bytes.  Hence, 
    the default page size chosen by SQLite on unix is usually 1024 bytes.
    On windows, the GetDiskFreeSpace() interface is used to obtain the
    actual device sector size and hence the default page size on windows
    will sometimes be greater than 1024.</p>
<a name="pragma_parser_trace"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA parser_trace = </b><i>boolean</i><b>; </b></p>

    <p>If SQLite has been compiled with the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time
    option, then the parser_trace pragma can be used to turn on tracing
    for the SQL parser used internally by SQLite.
    This feature is used for debugging SQLite itself.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #f0e0ff;'>
    This pragma is intended for use when debugging SQLite itself.  It
    is only contained in the build when the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time option
    is used.</p>
  
<a name="pragma_query_only"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA query_only;
       <br>PRAGMA query_only = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>The query_only pragma prevents all changes to database files when
    enabled.</p>
<a name="pragma_quick_check"></a>
<hr>

    <p><b>PRAGMA quick_check;
    <br>PRAGMA quick_check(</b><i>N</i><b>)</b></p>
    <p>The pragma is like <a href="pragma.html#pragma_integrity_check">integrity_check</a> except that it does not verify
    that index content matches table content.  By skipping the verification
    of index content, quick_check is able to run much faster than
    integrity_check.  Otherwise the two pragmas are the same.
    </p>

<a name="pragma_read_uncommitted"></a>
<hr>

    <p><b>PRAGMA read_uncommitted;
       <br>PRAGMA read_uncommitted = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query, set, or clear READ UNCOMMITTED isolation. The default isolation
    level for SQLite is SERIALIZABLE.  Any process or thread can select
    READ UNCOMMITTED isolation, but SERIALIZABLE will still be used except
    between connections that share a common page and schema cache.
    Cache sharing is enabled using the <a href="c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html">sqlite3_enable_shared_cache()</a> API.
    Cache sharing is disabled by default.
    </p>

    <p>See <a href="sharedcache.html">SQLite Shared-Cache Mode</a> for additional information.</p>
<a name="pragma_recursive_triggers"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA recursive_triggers;
       <br>PRAGMA recursive_triggers = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>
    <p>Query, set, or clear the recursive trigger capability.

    <p>Changing the recursive_triggers setting affects the execution of
       all statements prepared
       using the database connection, including those prepared before the
       setting was changed. Any existing statements prepared using the legacy 
       <a href="c3ref/prepare.html">sqlite3_prepare()</a> interface may fail with an <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_SCHEMA</a> error
       after the recursive_triggers setting is changed.

    <p>Prior to SQLite version 3.6.18, recursive triggers were not
    supported.  The behavior of SQLite was always as if this pragma was
    set to OFF.  Support for recursive triggers was added in version 3.6.18
    but was initially turned OFF by default, for compatibility.  Recursive
    triggers may be turned on by default in future versions of SQLite.
    </p>



    <p>The depth of recursion for triggers has a hard upper limit set by
    the <a href="limits.html#max_trigger_depth">SQLITE_MAX_TRIGGER_DEPTH</a> compile-time option and a run-time
    limit set by <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit</a>(db,<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimittriggerdepth">SQLITE_LIMIT_TRIGGER_DEPTH</a>,...).</p>
<a name="pragma_reverse_unordered_selects"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA reverse_unordered_selects;

       <br>PRAGMA reverse_unordered_selects = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>




    <p>When enabled, this PRAGMA causes <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statements without
    an ORDER BY clause to emit their results in the reverse order of what
    they normally would.  This can help debug applications that are
    making invalid assumptions about the result order.<p>SQLite makes no
    guarantees about the order of results if a SELECT omits the ORDER BY
    clause.  Even so, the order of results does not change from one
    run to the next, and so many applications mistakenly come to depend
    on the arbitrary output order whatever that order happens to be.  However, 
    sometimes new versions of SQLite will contain optimizer enhancements
    that will cause the output order of queries without ORDER BY clauses
    to shift.  When that happens, applications that depend on a certain
    output order might malfunction.  By running the application multiple
    times with this pragma both disabled and enabled, cases where the
    application makes faulty assumptions about output order can be
    identified and fixed early, reducing problems
    that might be caused by linking against a different version of SQLite.
    </p>
<a name="pragma_schema_version"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA schema_version; 
       <br>PRAGMA schema_version = </b><i>integer </i><b>;
       <br>PRAGMA user_version;
       <br>PRAGMA user_version = </b><i>integer </i><b>;</b>

  
<p>    The pragmas schema_version and user_version are used to set or get
       the value of the schema-version and user-version, respectively. The
       schema-version and the user-version are big-endian 32-bit signed
       integers stored in the database header at offsets 40 and 60,
       respectively.</p>
  
<p>    The schema-version is usually only manipulated internally by SQLite.  
       It is incremented by SQLite whenever the database schema is modified 
       (by creating or dropping a table or index). The schema version is 
       used by SQLite each time a query is executed to ensure that the 
       internal cache of the schema used when compiling the SQL query matches 
       the schema of the database against which the compiled query is actually 
       executed.  Subverting this mechanism by using "PRAGMA schema_version" 
       to modify the schema-version is potentially dangerous and may lead 
       to program crashes or database corruption. Use with caution!</p>
  
<p>    The user-version is not used internally by SQLite. It may be used by
       applications for any purpose.</p>
<a name="pragma_secure_delete"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA secure_delete;
       <br>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.secure_delete;
       <br>PRAGMA secure_delete = </b><i>boolean</i><b>
       <br>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.secure_delete =
               </b><i>boolean</i></p>
    <p>Query or change the secure-delete setting. When secure-delete
    on, SQLite overwrites deleted content with zeros.  The default
    setting is determined by the <a href="compile.html#secure_delete">SQLITE_SECURE_DELETE</a>
    compile-time option.

    <p>
    When there are <a href="lang_attach.html">attached databases</a> and no database
    is specified in the pragma, all databases have their secure-delete
    setting altered.
    The secure-delete setting for newly attached databases is the setting
    of the main database at the time the ATTACH command is evaluated.




    <p>
    When multiple database connections share the same cache, changing
    the secure-delete flag on one database connection changes it for them
    all.
    </p>
<a name="pragma_short_column_names"></a>
<hr>







    <p><b>PRAGMA short_column_names;
       <br>PRAGMA short_column_names = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the short-column-names flag. This flag affects
    the way SQLite names columns of data returned by <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT</a> statements.
    See the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_full_column_names">full_column_names</a> pragma for full details.
    </p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  
<a name="pragma_shrink_memory"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA shrink_memory</b></p>

    <p>This pragma causes the database connection on which it is invoked
    to free up as much memory as it can, by calling
    <a href="c3ref/db_release_memory.html">sqlite3_db_release_memory()</a>.
    </p>
<a name="pragma_soft_heap_limit"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA soft_heap_limit<br>
          PRAGMA soft_heap_limit=</b><i>N</i></p>

    <p>This pragma invokes the <a href="c3ref/soft_heap_limit64.html">sqlite3_soft_heap_limit64()</a> interface with
    the argument N, if N is specified and is a non-negative integer.
    The soft_heap_limit pragma always returns the same integer
    that would be returned by the <a href="c3ref/soft_heap_limit64.html">sqlite3_soft_heap_limit64</a>(-1) C-language
    function.


    </p>
<a name="pragma_stats"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA stats;</b> </p>
    <p>This pragma returns auxiliary information about tables and
    indices.  The returned information is used during testing to help
    verify that the query planner is operating correctly.  The format
    and meaning of this pragma will likely change from release
    to the next. Because of its volatility, the behavior and output
    format of this pragma are deliberately undocumented.  This pragma is
    intended for interactive, debugging, and testing use only.
    Applications should avoid using this pragma.</p>
<a name="pragma_synchronous"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA synchronous;
       <br>PRAGMA synchronous = </b>
          <i>0 | OFF | 1 | NORMAL | 2 | FULL</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the setting of the "synchronous" flag.
    The first (query) form will return the synchronous setting as an 
    integer.  When synchronous is FULL (2), the SQLite database engine will
    use the xSync method of the <a href="vfs.html">VFS</a> to ensure that all content is safely
    written to the disk surface prior to continuing.
    This ensures that an operating system crash or power failure will
    not corrupt the database.
    FULL synchronous is very safe, but it is also slower. 
    When synchronous is NORMAL (1), the SQLite database
    engine will still sync at the most critical moments, but less often
    than in FULL mode.  There is a very small (though non-zero) chance that
    a power failure at just the wrong time could corrupt the database in
    NORMAL mode.  But in practice, you are more likely to suffer
    a catastrophic disk failure or some other unrecoverable hardware
    fault.
    With synchronous OFF (0), SQLite continues without syncing
    as soon as it has handed data off to the operating system.
    If the application running SQLite crashes, the data will be safe, but
    the database might become corrupted if the operating system
    crashes or the computer loses power before that data has been written
    to the disk surface.  On the other hand, some
    operations are as much as 50 or more times faster with synchronous OFF.
    </p>
 
    <p>In <a href="wal.html">WAL</a> mode when synchronous is NORMAL (1), the WAL file is
    synchronized before each <a href="wal.html#ckpt">checkpoint</a> and the database file is
    synchronized after each completed <a href="wal.html#ckpt">checkpoint</a> and the WAL file
    header is synchronized when a WAL file begins to be reused after
    a checkpoint, but no sync operations occur during most transactions.
    With synchronous=FULL in WAL mode, an additional
    sync operation of the WAL file happens after each transaction commit.
    The extra WAL sync following each transaction help ensure that 
    transactions are durable across a power loss, but they do not aid
    in preserving consistency.
    If durability is not a concern, then synchronous=NORMAL is normally
    all one needs in WAL mode.</p>

    <p>The default setting is synchronous=FULL.</p>

    <p>See also the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_fullfsync">fullfsync</a> and <a href="pragma.html#pragma_checkpoint_fullfsync">checkpoint_fullfsync</a> pragmas.</p>
<a name="pragma_table_info"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA table_info(</b><i>table-name</i><b>);</b></p>

    <p>This pragma returns one row for each column in the named table.
    Columns in the result set include the column name,
    data type, whether or not the column can be NULL, and the default
    value for the column.  The "pk" column in the result set is zero
    for columns that are not part of the primary key, and is the index of
    the column in the primary key for columns that are part of the primary
    key.</p>

<a name="pragma_temp_store"></a>
<hr>




    <p><b>PRAGMA temp_store;
       <br>PRAGMA temp_store = </b>
            <i>0 | DEFAULT | 1 | FILE | 2 | MEMORY</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>Query or change the setting of the "<b>temp_store</b>" parameter.
    When temp_store is DEFAULT (0), the compile-time C preprocessor macro
    <a href="compile.html#temp_store">SQLITE_TEMP_STORE</a> is used to determine where temporary tables and indices
    are stored.  When
    temp_store is MEMORY (2) <a href="inmemorydb.html#temp_db">temporary tables</a> and indices are kept in
    as if they were pure <a href="inmemorydb.html">in-memory databases</a> memory.
    When temp_store is FILE (1) <a href="inmemorydb.html#temp_db">temporary tables</a> and indices are stored
    in a file.  The <a href="pragma.html#pragma_temp_store_directory">temp_store_directory</a> pragma can be used to specify
    the directory containing temporary files when
    <b>FILE</b> is specified.  When the temp_store setting is changed,
    all existing temporary tables, indices, triggers, and views are
    immediately deleted.</p>

    <p>It is possible for the library compile-time C preprocessor symbol
    <a href="compile.html#temp_store">SQLITE_TEMP_STORE</a> to override this pragma setting.
    The following table summarizes
    the interaction of the <a href="compile.html#temp_store">SQLITE_TEMP_STORE</a> preprocessor macro and the
    temp_store pragma:</p>

    <blockquote>
    <table cellpadding="2" border="1">
    <tr><th valign="bottom"><a href="compile.html#temp_store">SQLITE_TEMP_STORE</a></th>
        <th valign="bottom">PRAGMA<br>temp_store</th>
        <th>Storage used for<br>TEMP tables and indices</th></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">0</td>
        <td align="center"><em>any</em></td>
        <td align="center">file</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">1</td>
        <td align="center">0</td>
        <td align="center">file</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">1</td>
        <td align="center">1</td>
        <td align="center">file</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">1</td>
        <td align="center">2</td>
        <td align="center">memory</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">2</td>
        <td align="center">0</td>
        <td align="center">memory</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">2</td>
        <td align="center">1</td>
        <td align="center">file</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">2</td>
        <td align="center">2</td>
        <td align="center">memory</td></tr>
    <tr><td align="center">3</td>
        <td align="center"><em>any</em></td>
        <td align="center">memory</td></tr>
    </table>
    </blockquote>
<a name="pragma_temp_store_directory"></a>


<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA temp_store_directory;
       <br>PRAGMA temp_store_directory = '</b><i>directory-name</i><b>';</b></p>
    <p>Query or change the value of the <a href="c3ref/temp_directory.html">sqlite3_temp_directory</a> global
    variable, which many operating-system interface backends use to
    determine where to store <a href="inmemorydb.html#temp_db">temporary tables</a> and indices.</p>

    <p>When the temp_store_directory setting is changed, all existing temporary
    tables, indices, triggers, and viewers in the database connection that


    issued the pragma are immediately deleted.  In
    practice, temp_store_directory should be set immediately after the first
    database connection for a process is opened.  If the temp_store_directory

    is changed for one database connection while other database connections
    are open in the same process, then the behavior is undefined and
    probably undesirable.</p>

    <p>Changing the temp_store_directory setting is <u>not</u> threadsafe.
    Never change the temp_store_directory setting if another thread
    within the application is running any SQLite interface at the same time.
    Doing so results in undefined behavior.  Changing the temp_store_directory
    setting writes to the <a href="c3ref/temp_directory.html">sqlite3_temp_directory</a> global
    variable and that global variable is not protected by a mutex.</p>

    <p>The value <i>directory-name</i> should be enclosed in single quotes.
    To revert the directory to the default, set the <i>directory-name</i> to
    an empty string, e.g., <i>PRAGMA temp_store_directory = ''</i>.  An
    error is raised if <i>directory-name</i> is not found or is not
    writable. </p>

    <p>The default directory for temporary files depends on the OS.  Some
    OS interfaces may choose to ignore this variable and place temporary
    files in some other directory different from the directory specified
    here.  In that sense, this pragma is only advisory.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #ffd0d0;'>
    <b>This pragma is deprecated</b> and exists
    for backwards compatibility only.  New applications
    should avoid using this pragma.  Older applications should discontinue
    use of this pragma at the earliest opportunity.  This pragma may be omitted
    from the build when SQLite is compiled using <a href="compile.html#omit_deprecated">SQLITE_OMIT_DEPRECATED</a>.
    </p>
  

<a name="pragma_vdbe_addoptrace"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA vdbe_addoptrace = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>If SQLite has been compiled with the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time
    option, then the vdbe_addoptrace pragma can be used to cause a complete
    VDBE opcodes to be displayed as they are created during code generation.
    This feature is used for debugging SQLite itself.  See the 
    <a href="vdbe.html#trace">VDBE documentation</a> for more 
    information.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #f0e0ff;'>
    This pragma is intended for use when debugging SQLite itself.  It
    is only contained in the build when the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time option
    is used.</p>
  

<a name="pragma_vdbe_debug"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA vdbe_debug = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>If SQLite has been compiled with the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time
    option, then the vdbe_debug pragma is a shorthand for three other
    debug-only pragmas: vdbe_addoptrace, vdbe_listing, and vdbe_trace.
    This feature is used for debugging SQLite itself.  See the 
    <a href="vdbe.html#trace">VDBE documentation</a> for more 
    information.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #f0e0ff;'>
    This pragma is intended for use when debugging SQLite itself.  It
    is only contained in the build when the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time option
    is used.</p>
  
<a name="pragma_vdbe_listing"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA vdbe_listing = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>If SQLite has been compiled with the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time
    option, then the vdbe_listing pragma can be used to cause a complete
    listing of the virtual machine opcodes to appear on standard output
    as each statement is evaluated.
    With listing is on, the entire content of a program is printed
    just prior to beginning execution.  The statement
    executes normally after the listing is printed.
    This feature is used for debugging SQLite itself.  See the 
    <a href="vdbe.html#trace">VDBE documentation</a> for more 
    information.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #f0e0ff;'>
    This pragma is intended for use when debugging SQLite itself.  It
    is only contained in the build when the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time option
    is used.</p>
  
<a name="pragma_vdbe_trace"></a>

<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA vdbe_trace = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>If SQLite has been compiled with the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time
    option, then the vdbe_trace pragma can be used to cause virtual machine


    opcodes to be printed on standard output as they are evaluated.
    This feature is used for debugging SQLite.  See the 
    <a href="vdbe.html#trace">VDBE documentation</a> for more 
    information.</p>

    
    <p style='background-color: #f0e0ff;'>
    This pragma is intended for use when debugging SQLite itself.  It
    is only contained in the build when the <a href="compile.html#debug">SQLITE_DEBUG</a> compile-time option
    is used.</p>
  
<a name="pragma_wal_autocheckpoint"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA wal_autocheckpoint;<br>
     PRAGMA wal_autocheckpoint=</b><i>N</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>This pragma queries or sets the <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> 
    <a href="wal.html#ckpt">auto-checkpoint</a> interval.
    When the <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> is enabled (via the
    <a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">journal_mode pragma</a>) a checkpoint will be run automatically whenever
    the write-ahead log equals or exceeds <i>N</i> pages in length.
    Setting the auto-checkpoint size to zero or a negative value
    turns auto-checkpointing off.</p>
    
    <p>This pragma is a wrapper around the
    <a href="c3ref/wal_autocheckpoint.html">sqlite3_wal_autocheckpoint()</a> C interface.</p>

    <p>Autocheckpointing is enabled by default with an interval
    of 1000 or <a href="compile.html#default_wal_autocheckpoint">SQLITE_DEFAULT_WAL_AUTOCHECKPOINT</a>.</p>




<a name="pragma_wal_checkpoint"></a>


<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.wal_checkpoint;</b><br>
    <b>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.wal_checkpoint(PASSIVE);</b><br>
    <b>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.wal_checkpoint(FULL);</b><br>
    <b>PRAGMA </b><i>database</i><b>.wal_checkpoint(RESTART);</b>
   </p>

    <p>If the <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> is enabled (via the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_journal_mode">journal_mode pragma</a>),
    this pragma causes a <a href="wal.html#ckpt">checkpoint</a> operation to run on database
    <i>database</i>, or on all attached databases if <i>database</i>
    is omitted.  If <a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a> mode is disabled, this pragma is a
    harmless no-op.</p>

    <p>Invoking this pragma is equivalent to calling the
    <a href="c3ref/wal_checkpoint_v2.html">sqlite3_wal_checkpoint_v2()</a> C interface with a 
    <a href="c3ref/c_checkpoint_full.html">3rd parameter</a>
    corresponding to the argument of the PRAGMA.  Invoking this
    pragma without an argument is equivalent to calling the
    <a href="c3ref/wal_checkpoint.html">sqlite3_wal_checkpoint()</a> C interface.</p>

    <p>The wal_checkpoint pragma returns a single row with three
    integer columns.  The first column is usually 0 but will be
    1 if a RESTART or FULL checkpoint was blocked from completing,
    for example because another thread or process was actively
    using the database.  In other words, the first column is 0 if the
    equivalent call to <a href="c3ref/wal_checkpoint_v2.html">sqlite3_wal_checkpoint_v2()</a> would have returned
    <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_OK</a> or 1 if the equivalent call would have returned <a href="c3ref/c_abort.html">SQLITE_BUSY</a>.
    The second column is the number of modified pages that have been
    written to the write-ahead log file.
    The third column is the number of pages in the write-ahead log file
    that have been successfully moved back into the database file at
    the conclusion of the checkpoint.
   The second and third column are -1 if there is no
    write-ahead log, for example if this pragma is invoked on a database
    connection that is not in <a href="wal.html">WAL mode</a>.</p>
<a name="pragma_writable_schema"></a>
<hr>
    <p><b>PRAGMA writable_schema  = </b><i>boolean</i><b>;</b></p>

    <p>When this pragma is on, the SQLITE_MASTER tables in which database
    can be changed using ordinary <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>
    statements.  Warning:  misuse of this pragma can easily result in
    a corrupt database file.</p>

<hr>
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<h1 align=center>Syntax Diagrams For SQLite</h1>

<a name="sql-stmt-list"></a>
<h4>sql-stmt-list:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/sql-stmt-list.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang.html">lang.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="sql-stmt"></a>
<h4>sql-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/sql-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt-list">sql-stmt-list</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#alter-table-stmt">alter-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#analyze-stmt">analyze-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#attach-stmt">attach-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#begin-stmt">begin-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#commit-stmt">commit-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-index-stmt">create-index-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-table-stmt">create-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-view-stmt">create-view-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-virtual-table-stmt">create-virtual-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt">delete-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#detach-stmt">detach-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#drop-index-stmt">drop-index-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#drop-table-stmt">drop-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#drop-trigger-stmt">drop-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#drop-view-stmt">drop-view-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#insert-stmt">insert-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#pragma-stmt">pragma-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#reindex-stmt">reindex-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#release-stmt">release-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#rollback-stmt">rollback-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#savepoint-stmt">savepoint-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt">update-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#vacuum-stmt">vacuum-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang.html">lang.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_explain.html">lang_explain.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="alter-table-stmt"></a>
<h4>alter-table-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/alter-table-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-def">column-def</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="analyze-stmt"></a>
<h4>analyze-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/analyze-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_analyze.html">lang_analyze.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="attach-stmt"></a>
<h4>attach-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/attach-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="begin-stmt"></a>
<h4>begin-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/begin-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_transaction.html">lang_transaction.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="commit-stmt"></a>
<h4>commit-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/commit-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="rollback-stmt"></a>
<h4>rollback-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/rollback-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="savepoint-stmt"></a>
<h4>savepoint-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/savepoint-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_savepoint.html">lang_savepoint.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="release-stmt"></a>
<h4>release-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/release-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="create-index-stmt"></a>
<h4>create-index-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/create-index-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#indexed-column">indexed-column</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="indexed-column"></a>
<h4>indexed-column:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/indexed-column.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-index-stmt">create-index-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-constraint">table-constraint</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="create-table-stmt"></a>
<h4>create-table-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/create-table-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-def">column-def</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-constraint">table-constraint</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="column-def"></a>
<h4>column-def:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/column-def.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#alter-table-stmt">alter-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-table-stmt">create-table-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#type-name">type-name</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef">lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="type-name"></a>
<h4>type-name:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/type-name.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-def">column-def</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#signed-number">signed-number</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="column-constraint"></a>
<h4>column-constraint:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/column-constraint.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-def">column-def</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#conflict-clause">conflict-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#foreign-key-clause">foreign-key-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#literal-value">literal-value</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#signed-number">signed-number</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef">lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="signed-number"></a>
<h4>signed-number:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/signed-number.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#pragma-value">pragma-value</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#type-name">type-name</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="pragma.html#syntax">pragma.html#syntax</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="table-constraint"></a>
<h4>table-constraint:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/table-constraint.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-table-stmt">create-table-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#conflict-clause">conflict-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#foreign-key-clause">foreign-key-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#indexed-column">indexed-column</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html#primkeyconst">lang_createtable.html#primkeyconst</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef">lang_createtable.html#tablecoldef</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="foreign-key-clause"></a>
<h4>foreign-key-clause:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/foreign-key-clause.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-constraint">table-constraint</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="conflict-clause"></a>
<h4>conflict-clause:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-constraint">table-constraint</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_conflict.html">lang_conflict.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html#notnullconst">lang_createtable.html#notnullconst</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="create-trigger-stmt"></a>
<h4>create-trigger-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/create-trigger-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt">delete-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#insert-stmt">insert-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt">update-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="create-view-stmt"></a>
<h4>create-view-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/create-view-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="create-virtual-table-stmt"></a>
<h4>create-virtual-table-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/create-virtual-table-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createvtab.html">lang_createvtab.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="with-clause"></a>
<h4>with-clause:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/with-clause.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt">delete-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#insert-stmt">insert-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt">update-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#cte-table-name">cte-table-name</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="cte-table-name"></a>
<h4>cte-table-name:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#recursive-cte">recursive-cte</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html#recursivecte">lang_with.html#recursivecte</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="recursive-cte"></a>
<h4>recursive-cte:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/recursive-cte.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#cte-table-name">cte-table-name</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html#recursivecte">lang_with.html#recursivecte</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="common-table-expression"></a>
<h4>common-table-expression:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-select-stmt">compound-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="delete-stmt"></a>
<h4>delete-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/delete-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="delete-stmt-limited"></a>
<h4>delete-stmt-limited:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/delete-stmt-limited.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="detach-stmt"></a>
<h4>detach-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/detach-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_detach.html">lang_detach.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="drop-index-stmt"></a>
<h4>drop-index-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/drop-index-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_dropindex.html">lang_dropindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="drop-table-stmt"></a>
<h4>drop-table-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/drop-table-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_droptable.html">lang_droptable.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="drop-trigger-stmt"></a>
<h4>drop-trigger-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/drop-trigger-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">lang_droptrigger.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="drop-view-stmt"></a>
<h4>drop-view-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/drop-view-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_dropview.html">lang_dropview.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="expr"></a>
<h4>expr:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/expr.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#attach-stmt">attach-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-select-stmt">compound-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-index-stmt">create-index-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt">delete-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#insert-stmt">insert-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-constraint">join-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#result-column">result-column</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-constraint">table-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt">update-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#literal-value">literal-value</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#raise-function">raise-function</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#type-name">type-name</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="raise-function"></a>
<h4>raise-function:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/raise-function.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html#undef_before">lang_createtrigger.html#undef_before</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="literal-value"></a>
<h4>literal-value:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/literal-value.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#column-constraint">column-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="numeric-literal"></a>
<h4>numeric-literal:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/numeric-literal.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html#litvalue">lang_expr.html#litvalue</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="insert-stmt"></a>
<h4>insert-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/insert-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="pragma-stmt"></a>
<h4>pragma-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/pragma-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#pragma-value">pragma-value</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="pragma.html#syntax">pragma.html#syntax</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="pragma-value"></a>
<h4>pragma-value:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/pragma-value.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#pragma-stmt">pragma-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#signed-number">signed-number</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="pragma.html#syntax">pragma.html#syntax</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="reindex-stmt"></a>
<h4>reindex-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/reindex-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_reindex.html">lang_reindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="select-stmt"></a>
<h4>select-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/select-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#common-table-expression">common-table-expression</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-table-stmt">create-table-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-view-stmt">create-view-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#insert-stmt">insert-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#common-table-expression">common-table-expression</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-operator">compound-operator</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#result-column">result-column</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html#recursivecte">lang_with.html#recursivecte</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="join-clause"></a>
<h4>join-clause:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/join-clause.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-constraint">join-constraint</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-operator">join-operator</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="select-core"></a>
<h4>select-core:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/select-core.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-select-stmt">compound-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#result-column">result-column</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#table-or-subquery">table-or-subquery</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="factored-select-stmt"></a>
<h4>factored-select-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/factored-select-stmt.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#common-table-expression">common-table-expression</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-operator">compound-operator</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="simple-select-stmt"></a>
<h4>simple-select-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/simple-select-stmt.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#common-table-expression">common-table-expression</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="compound-select-stmt"></a>
<h4>compound-select-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/compound-select-stmt.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#common-table-expression">common-table-expression</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="table-or-subquery"></a>
<h4>table-or-subquery:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="result-column"></a>
<h4>result-column:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/result-column.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-core">select-core</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="join-operator"></a>
<h4>join-operator:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/join-operator.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#fromclause">lang_select.html#fromclause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="join-constraint"></a>
<h4>join-constraint:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/join-constraint.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#join-clause">join-clause</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#fromclause">lang_select.html#fromclause</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="ordering-term"></a>
<h4>ordering-term:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/ordering-term.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#compound-select-stmt">compound-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#simple-select-stmt">simple-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="compound-operator"></a>
<h4>compound-operator:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/compound-operator.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#factored-select-stmt">factored-select-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#select-stmt">select-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_altertable.html">lang_altertable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_attach.html">lang_attach.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createindex.html">lang_createindex.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtable.html">lang_createtable.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createview.html">lang_createview.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_expr.html">lang_expr.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_insert.html">lang_insert.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html">lang_select.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#compound">lang_select.html#compound</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">lang_select.html#simpleselect</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html">lang_with.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_with.html#recursivecte">lang_with.html#recursivecte</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="partialindex.html">partialindex.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="update-stmt"></a>
<h4>update-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/update-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#create-trigger-stmt">create-trigger-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="update-stmt-limited"></a>
<h4>update-stmt-limited:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/update-stmt-limited.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
References:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#expr">expr</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#ordering-term">ordering-term</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#qualified-table-name">qualified-table-name</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#with-clause">with-clause</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="qualified-table-name"></a>
<h4>qualified-table-name:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt">delete-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#delete-stmt-limited">delete-stmt-limited</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt">update-stmt</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#update-stmt-limited">update-stmt-limited</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">lang_createtrigger.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_delete.html">lang_delete.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_indexedby.html">lang_indexedby.html</a>&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_update.html">lang_update.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="vacuum-stmt"></a>
<h4>vacuum-stmt:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/vacuum-stmt.gif"></img><br></br>
Used by:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="#sql-stmt">sql-stmt</a><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_vacuum.html">lang_vacuum.html</a>
</blockquote>

<a name="comment-syntax"></a>
<h4>comment-syntax:</h4><blockquote>
<img src="images/syntax/comment-syntax.gif"></img><br></br><br></br>
See also:&nbsp;&nbsp; <a href="lang_comment.html">lang_comment.html</a>
</blockquote>
Name change from Doc/Extra/Core/lang_types.html to Doc/Extra/Provider/lang_types.html.
︙︙
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          </td>
        </tr>
      </table>
    </div>
    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By SQLite</h1>
      <p>
        The SQLite library understands most of the standard SQL language. But it does omit
        some features while at the same time adding a few features of its own. This document
        attempts to describe precisely what parts of the SQL language SQLite does and does
        not support. A list of keywords is also provided. In all of the syntax diagrams
        that follow, literal text is shown in bold blue. Non-terminal symbols are shown
        in italic red. Operators that are part of the syntactic markup itself are shown
        in black roman. This document is just an overview of the SQL syntax implemented
        by SQLite.
      </p>
      <h4>
        SQLite implements the follow syntax:</h4>











      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_altertable.html">
              ALTER TABLE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_analyze.html">
              ANALYZE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td style="height: 19px">
              <a href="lang_attach.html">
              ATTACH DATABASE</a></td>
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              BEGIN TRANSACTION</a></td>
          </tr>
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              comment</a></td>
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          </tr>
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              <a href="lang_createvtab.html">
              CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_delete.html">
              DELETE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_detach.html">
              DETACH DATABASE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_dropindex.html">DROP INDEX</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_droptrigger.html">DROP TRIGGER</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_dropview.html">DROP VIEW</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_transaction.html">
              END TRANSACTION</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_explain.html">
              EXPLAIN</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_expr.html">
              expression</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_insert.html">
              INSERT</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_conflict.html">
              ON CONFLICT clause</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td style="height: 19px">
              <a href="pragma.html">
              PRAGMA</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_reindex.html">
              REINDEX</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_replace.html">
              REPLACE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_transaction.html">
              ROLLBACK TRANSACTION</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_select.html">
              SELECT</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_types.html">
              TYPES</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_update.html">
              UPDATE</a></td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="lang_vacuum.html">
              VACUUM</a></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <hr>
      <div id="footer">
        <p>
          &nbsp;</p>
        <p>








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          </td>
        </tr>
      </table>
    </div>
    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
      <h1 class="heading">
        SQL As Understood By System.Data.SQLite</h1>
      <p>
        The SQLite library understands most of the standard SQL language. But it does omit
        some features while at the same time adding a few features of its own. This document
        attempts to describe precisely what parts of the SQL language SQLite does and does
        not support. A list of keywords is also provided. In all of the syntax diagrams
        that follow, literal text is shown in bold blue. Non-terminal symbols are shown
        in italic red. Operators that are part of the syntactic markup itself are shown
        in black roman. This document is just an overview of the SQL syntax implemented
        by SQLite.
      </p>
      <h4>
        The SQLite core library implements the follow syntax:</h4>
      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
          <tr>
            <td>
              <a href="../Core/lang.html">
              SQL As Understood By SQLite</a></td>
          </tr>
        </table>
      </p>
      <h4>
        The System.Data.SQLite provider implements the follow additional syntax:</h4>
      <p>
        <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse">
          <tr>
            <td>































































































































              <a href="lang_types.html">
              TYPES</a></td>
          </tr>










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    </div>
    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
    <h1 class="heading">Version History</h1>
    <p><b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b></p>
    <ul>
      <li>Updated to <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html">SQLite 3.8.3</a>.</li>

      <li>Add support for <a href="http://entityframework.codeplex.com/">Entity Framework 6</a>.</li>
      <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to <a href="http://system.data.sqlite.org/index.html/info/e87af1d06a">[e87af1d06a]</a>.</li>
      <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
      <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
      <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
      <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
      <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to <a href="http://system.data.sqlite.org/index.html/info/a47eff2c71">[a47eff2c71]</a>.</li>








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    </div>
    <div id="mainSection">
    <div id="mainBody">
    <h1 class="heading">Version History</h1>
    <p><b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b></p>
    <ul>
      <li>Updated to <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html">SQLite 3.8.3</a>.</li>
      <li>Refresh all included SQLite core library documentation (e.g. SQL syntax).</li>
      <li>Add support for <a href="http://entityframework.codeplex.com/">Entity Framework 6</a>.</li>
      <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to <a href="http://system.data.sqlite.org/index.html/info/e87af1d06a">[e87af1d06a]</a>.</li>
      <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
      <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
      <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
      <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
      <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to <a href="http://system.data.sqlite.org/index.html/info/a47eff2c71">[a47eff2c71]</a>.</li>
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		</OBJECT>
	<UL>




		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ALTER TABLE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_altertable.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ANALYZE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_analyze.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ATTACH DATABASE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_attach.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="BEGIN TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="comment">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_comment.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="COMMIT TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">




			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE INDEX">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createindex.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE TABLE">








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			<param name="Name" value="Optimizing SQL Queries">
			<param name="Local" value="Provider/optimizing.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Provider Limitations">
			<param name="Local" value="Provider/limitations.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Syntax Reference">
			<param name="Local" value="Provider/syntax.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="TYPES">
			<param name="Local" value="Provider/lang_types.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Version History">
			<param name="Local" value="Provider/version.html">
			</OBJECT>
	</UL>
	<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
		<param name="Name" value="Query Language Understood by SQLite">
		<param name="Local" value="Core/lang.html">
		</OBJECT>
	<UL>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Aggregate Functions">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_aggfunc.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ALTER TABLE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_altertable.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ANALYZE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_analyze.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ATTACH DATABASE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_attach.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Comments">




			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_comment.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ON CONFLICT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_conflict.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Core Functions">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_corefunc.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE INDEX">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createindex.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE TABLE">
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			<param name="Name" value="CREATE VIEW">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createview.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createvtab.html">
			</OBJECT>




		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DELETE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_delete.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DETACH DATABASE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_detach.html">








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			<param name="Name" value="CREATE VIEW">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createview.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_createvtab.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Date And Time Functions">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_datefunc.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DELETE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_delete.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DETACH DATABASE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_detach.html">
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			<param name="Name" value="DROP TRIGGER">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_droptrigger.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DROP VIEW">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_dropview.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="END TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="EXPLAIN">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_explain.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="expression">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_expr.html">
			</OBJECT>




		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="INSERT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_insert.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ON CONFLICT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_conflict.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="PRAGMA">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/pragma.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="REINDEX">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_reindex.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="REPLACE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_replace.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ROLLBACK TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="SELECT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_select.html">
			</OBJECT>
















		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="UPDATE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_update.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="VACUUM">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_vacuum.html">
			</OBJECT>












	</UL>









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			<param name="Name" value="DROP TRIGGER">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_droptrigger.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="DROP VIEW">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_dropview.html">
			</OBJECT>




		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="EXPLAIN">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_explain.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Expressions">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_expr.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="INDEXED BY">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_indexedby.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="INSERT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_insert.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Keywords">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_keywords.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Database Object Name Resolution">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_naming.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="REINDEX">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_reindex.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="REPLACE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_replace.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="SAVEPOINT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_savepoint.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="SELECT">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_select.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="BEGIN TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="COMMIT TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="END TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="ROLLBACK TRANSACTION">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_transaction.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="UPDATE">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_update.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="VACUUM">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_vacuum.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="WITH">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/lang_with.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="PRAGMA">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/pragma.html">
			</OBJECT>
		<LI> <OBJECT type="text/sitemap">
			<param name="Name" value="Syntax Diagrams">
			<param name="Local" value="Core/syntaxdiagrams.html">
			</OBJECT>
	</UL>
</BODY><HTML>
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[OPTIONS]
Compatibility=1.1 or later
Compiled file=SQLite.NET.extra.chm
Contents file=SQLite.NET.hhc
Default topic=Provider\welcome.html
Display compile progress=Yes
Error log file=SQLite.NET.log
Full-text search=Yes
Language=0x409 English (United States)
Title=SQLite.NET Help

[FILES]


Core\lang_altertable.html
Core\lang_analyze.html
Core\lang_attach.html
Core\lang_comment.html
Core\lang_conflict.html

Core\lang_createindex.html
Core\lang_createtable.html
Core\lang_createtrigger.html
Core\lang_createview.html
Core\lang_createvtab.html
Core\lang_datetime.html
Core\lang_delete.html
Core\lang_detach.html
Core\lang_dropindex.html
Core\lang_droptable.html
Core\lang_droptrigger.html
Core\lang_dropview.html
Core\lang_explain.html
Core\lang_expr.html

Core\lang_insert.html


Core\lang_reindex.html
Core\lang_replace.html

Core\lang_select.html
Core\lang_transaction.html
Core\lang_types.html
Core\lang_update.html
Core\lang_vacuum.html

Core\pragma.html
Core\syntax.html
Include\ndoc.css
Provider\dbfactorysupport.html
Provider\designer.html
Provider\environment.html

Provider\limitations.html
Provider\optimizing.html

Provider\version.html
Provider\welcome.html













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[OPTIONS]
Compatibility=1.1 or later
Compiled file=SQLite.NET.extra.chm
Contents file=SQLite.NET.hhc
Default topic=Provider\welcome.html
Display compile progress=Yes
Error log file=SQLite.NET.log
Full-text search=Yes
Language=0x409 English (United States)
Title=SQLite.NET Help

[FILES]
Core\lang.html
Core\lang_aggfunc.html
Core\lang_altertable.html
Core\lang_analyze.html
Core\lang_attach.html
Core\lang_comment.html
Core\lang_conflict.html
Core\lang_corefunc.html
Core\lang_createindex.html
Core\lang_createtable.html
Core\lang_createtrigger.html
Core\lang_createview.html
Core\lang_createvtab.html
Core\lang_datefunc.html
Core\lang_delete.html
Core\lang_detach.html
Core\lang_dropindex.html
Core\lang_droptable.html
Core\lang_droptrigger.html
Core\lang_dropview.html
Core\lang_explain.html
Core\lang_expr.html
Core\lang_indexedby.html
Core\lang_insert.html
Core\lang_keywords.html
Core\lang_naming.html
Core\lang_reindex.html
Core\lang_replace.html
Core\lang_savepoint.html
Core\lang_select.html
Core\lang_transaction.html

Core\lang_update.html
Core\lang_vacuum.html
Core\lang_with.html
Core\pragma.html
Core\syntaxdiagrams.html
Include\ndoc.css
Provider\dbfactorysupport.html
Provider\designer.html
Provider\environment.html
Provider\lang_types.html
Provider\limitations.html
Provider\optimizing.html
Provider\syntax.html
Provider\version.html
Provider\welcome.html
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  set file_id [open $fileName {WRONLY CREAT TRUNC}]
  fconfigure $file_id -encoding binary -translation binary
  puts -nonewline $file_id $data
  close $file_id
  return ""
}

proc readFileAsSubSpec { fileName } {
  set data [readFile $fileName]
  regsub -all -- {&} $data {\\\&} data
  regsub -all -- {\\(\d+)} $data {\\\\\1} data
  return $data
}





proc getFileHash { fileName } {
  if {[catch {
    exec fossil.exe sha1sum [file nativename $fileName]
  } result] == 0} then {
    return [string trim [lindex [split $result " "] 0]]
  }
  return ""
}









































































































#
# HACK: Copy our local [fixed] copy of the MSDN documenter assembly into the
#       installed location of NDoc3, if necessary.  Actually copying the file
#       will require elevated administrator privileges; otherwise, it will
#       fail.  Any errors encountered while copying the file are reported via
#       the console; however, they will not halt further processing (i.e. the








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  set file_id [open $fileName {WRONLY CREAT TRUNC}]
  fconfigure $file_id -encoding binary -translation binary
  puts -nonewline $file_id $data
  close $file_id
  return ""
}

proc escapeSubSpec { data } {

  regsub -all -- {&} $data {\\\&} data
  regsub -all -- {\\(\d+)} $data {\\\\\1} data
  return $data
}

proc readFileAsSubSpec { fileName } {
  return [escapeSubSpec [readFile $fileName]]
}

proc getFileHash { fileName } {
  if {[catch {
    exec fossil.exe sha1sum [file nativename $fileName]
  } result] == 0} then {
    return [string trim [lindex [split $result " "] 0]]
  }
  return ""
}

#
# HACK: This procedure checks all the "href" attribute values in the specified
#       core documentation file.  For each value, this procedure checks if the
#       reference conforms to one of the following general categories:
#
#       1. A relative reference to a named anchor within the same document.
#       2. An absolute reference using HTTP or HTTPS.
#       3. A relative reference to an existing local file.
#       4. An absolute reference to a local file.
#
#       Otherwise, this procedure transforms the "href" attribute value into
#       an absolute reference using the specified base URL.
#
proc transformCoreDocumentationFile { fileName url } {
  #
  # NOTE: Grab the name of the directory containing the file.
  #
  set directory [file dirname $fileName]

  #
  # NOTE: Read all the textual data from the file.
  #
  set data [readFile $fileName]

  #
  # NOTE: No replacements made yet.
  #
  set count 0

  #
  # NOTE: Process all "href" attribute values from the data.  This pattern is
  #       not univeral; however, as of this writing (Feb 2014), the core docs
  #       are using it consistently.
  #
  foreach {dummy href} [regexp -all -inline -nocase -- {href="(.*?)"} $data] {
    #
    # NOTE: Skip all references to other items on this page.
    #
    if {[string index $href 0] eq "#"} then {
      continue
    }

    #
    # NOTE: Skip all absolute HTTP/HTTPS references.
    #
    if {[string range $href 0 6] eq "http://" || \
        [string range $href 0 7] eq "https://"} then {
      continue
    }

    #
    # NOTE: Split on the "#" character to get the file name.  There are some
    #       places within the core docs that refer to named anchors within
    #       other files.
    #
    set parts [split $href #]; set part1 [lindex $parts 0]

    #
    # NOTE: If there is no file name part, skip the reference.
    #
    if {[string length $part1] == 0} then {
      continue
    }

    #
    # NOTE: If it does not appear to be relative, skip it.
    #
    if {[file pathtype $part1] ne "relative"} then {
      continue
    }

    #
    # NOTE: If the referenced file name exists locally, skip it.
    #
    if {[file exists [file join $directory $part1]]} then {
      continue
    }

    #
    # NOTE: Replace the reference with an absolute reference using the base
    #       URL specified by the caller, escaping it as necessary for use
    #       with [regsub].
    #
    set pattern "***=$dummy"; # NOTE: Use literal string syntax.
    set subSpec "href=\"[escapeSubSpec $url$href]\""

    #
    # NOTE: Perform the replacements, if any, keeping track of how many were
    #       done.
    #
    incr count [regsub -all -- $pattern $data $subSpec data]
  }

  #
  # NOTE: If some replacements were performed on the data from the file, then
  #       overwrite it with the new data; otherwise, issue a warning.
  #
  if {$count > 0} then {
    writeFile $fileName $data
  } else {
    puts stdout "*WARNING* File \"$fileName\" does not match: href=\"(.*?)\""
  }
}

#
# HACK: Copy our local [fixed] copy of the MSDN documenter assembly into the
#       installed location of NDoc3, if necessary.  Actually copying the file
#       will require elevated administrator privileges; otherwise, it will
#       fail.  Any errors encountered while copying the file are reported via
#       the console; however, they will not halt further processing (i.e. the
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    }
  } else {
    puts stdout \
        "skipped copying \"$sourceFileName\" to \"$destinationFileName\""
  }
}




set path [file normalize [file dirname [info script]]]

set nDocExtPath [file join [file dirname $path] Externals NDoc3]
set nDocInstPath [file join $env(ProgramFiles) NDoc3]

if {![file isdirectory $nDocInstPath]} then {
  puts stdout "NDoc3 must be installed to: $nDocInstPath"








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    }
  } else {
    puts stdout \
        "skipped copying \"$sourceFileName\" to \"$destinationFileName\""
  }
}

#
# NOTE: This is the entry point for this script.
#
set path [file normalize [file dirname [info script]]]

set nDocExtPath [file join [file dirname $path] Externals NDoc3]
set nDocInstPath [file join $env(ProgramFiles) NDoc3]

if {![file isdirectory $nDocInstPath]} then {
  puts stdout "NDoc3 must be installed to: $nDocInstPath"
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#
# TODO: If the NDoc version number ever changes, the next line of code will
#       probably need to be updated.
#
set outputPath [file join Output]
set temporaryPath [file join $outputPath ndoc3_msdn_temp]



if {[file isdirectory $nDocExtPath]} then {
  copyMsdnDocumenter $nDocExtPath $nDocInstPath
}

set code [catch {exec [file join $nDocInstPath bin NDoc3Console.exe] \
    "-project=[file nativename $projectFile]"} result]

puts stdout $result; if {$code != 0} then {exit $code}

set fileNames [list SQLite.NET.hhp SQLite.NET.hhc]


foreach fileName [glob -nocomplain [file join $temporaryPath *.html]] {

  lappend fileNames [file tail $fileName]



}






set patterns(.hhc,1) {<!--This document contains Table of Contents information\
for the HtmlHelp compiler\.--><UL>}

set patterns(.hhp,1) {Default topic=~System\.Data\.SQLite\.html}

set patterns(.hhp,2) \








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#
# TODO: If the NDoc version number ever changes, the next line of code will
#       probably need to be updated.
#
set outputPath [file join Output]
set temporaryPath [file join $outputPath ndoc3_msdn_temp]
set corePath [file join $temporaryPath Core]
set providerPath [file join $temporaryPath Provider]

if {[file isdirectory $nDocExtPath]} then {
  copyMsdnDocumenter $nDocExtPath $nDocInstPath
}

set code [catch {exec [file join $nDocInstPath bin NDoc3Console.exe] \
    "-project=[file nativename $projectFile]"} result]

puts stdout $result; if {$code != 0} then {exit $code}


###############################################################################

foreach fileName [glob -nocomplain [file join $corePath *.html]] {
  set fileName [file join $path $fileName]

  if {![file isfile $fileName]} then {
    puts stdout "Cannot find core file: $fileName"
    exit 1
  }

  transformCoreDocumentationFile $fileName http://www.sqlite.org/
}

###############################################################################

set patterns(.hhc,1) {<!--This document contains Table of Contents information\
for the HtmlHelp compiler\.--><UL>}

set patterns(.hhp,1) {Default topic=~System\.Data\.SQLite\.html}

set patterns(.hhp,2) \
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set subSpecs(.html,3) {78dfe2yb}
set subSpecs(.html,4) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,5) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,6) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,7) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,8) {"\1~Overloads.html"}











foreach fileName $fileNames {
  set fileName [file join $path $temporaryPath $fileName]

  #
  # NOTE: Make sure the file we need actually exists.
  #
  if {![file isfile $fileName]} then {
    puts stdout "Cannot find file: $fileName"
    exit 1
  }

  #
  # NOTE: Read the entire file into memory.
  #
  set data [readFile $fileName]








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set subSpecs(.html,3) {78dfe2yb}
set subSpecs(.html,4) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,5) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,6) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,7) {"\1~Overloads.html"}
set subSpecs(.html,8) {"\1~Overloads.html"}

###############################################################################

set providerFileNames [list \
    [file join $temporaryPath SQLite.NET.hhp] \
    [file join $temporaryPath SQLite.NET.hhc]]

foreach fileName [glob -nocomplain [file join $providerPath *.html]] {
  lappend providerFileNames $fileName
}

foreach fileName $providerFileNames {
  set fileName [file join $path $fileName]

  #
  # NOTE: Make sure the file we need actually exists.
  #
  if {![file isfile $fileName]} then {
    puts stdout "Cannot find provider file: $fileName"
    exit 1
  }

  #
  # NOTE: Read the entire file into memory.
  #
  set data [readFile $fileName]
︙︙
Changes to Setup/verify.lst.
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#       source code archive.
#
set sds_manifests(source) {
  Doc/
  Doc/buildChm.tcl
  Doc/Extra/
  Doc/Extra/Core/






































































  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_altertable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_analyze.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_attach.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_comment.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_conflict.html

  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtrigger.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createview.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createvtab.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_datetime.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_delete.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_detach.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_dropindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_droptable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_droptrigger.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_dropview.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_explain.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_expr.html

  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_insert.html


  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_reindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_replace.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_select.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_transaction.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_types.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_update.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_vacuum.html

  Doc/Extra/Core/pragma.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/syntax.html
  Doc/Extra/Include/
  Doc/Extra/Include/ndoc.css
  Doc/Extra/Provider/
  Doc/Extra/Provider/dbfactorysupport.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/designer.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/environment.html

  Doc/Extra/Provider/limitations.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/optimizing.html

  Doc/Extra/Provider/version.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/welcome.html
  Doc/SQLite.NET.chm
  Doc/SQLite.NET.hhc
  Doc/SQLite.NET.hhp
  Doc/SQLite.NET.ndoc
  exclude_bin.txt








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>





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>


>








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#       source code archive.
#
set sds_manifests(source) {
  Doc/
  Doc/buildChm.tcl
  Doc/Extra/
  Doc/Extra/Core/
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/sqlite370_banner.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/a.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/alter-table-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/analyze-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/attach-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/begin-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/column-constraint.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/column-def.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/comment-syntax.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/commit-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/common-table-expression.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/compound-operator.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/compound-select-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/conflict-clause.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/create-index-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/create-table-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/create-trigger-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/create-view-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/create-virtual-table-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/cte-table-name.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/delete-stmt-limited.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/delete-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/detach-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/drop-index-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/drop-table-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/drop-trigger-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/drop-view-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/expr.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/factored-select-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/floating-point-literal.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/foreign-key-clause.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/foreign-key-clause2.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/indexed-column.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/insert-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/join-clause.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/join-constraint.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/join-op.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/join-operator.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/join-source.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/literal-value.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/numeric-literal.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/ordering-term.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/pragma-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/pragma-value.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/qualified-table-name.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/raise-function.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/recursive-cte.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/reindex-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/release-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/result-column.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/rollback-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/savepoint-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/select-core.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/select-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/signed-number.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/simple-select-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/single-source.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/sql-stmt-list.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/sql-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/table-constraint.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/table-or-subquery.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/type-name.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/update-stmt-limited.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/update-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/vacuum-stmt.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/images/syntax/with-clause.gif
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_aggfunc.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_altertable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_analyze.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_attach.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_comment.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_conflict.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_corefunc.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createtrigger.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createview.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_createvtab.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_datefunc.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_delete.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_detach.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_dropindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_droptable.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_droptrigger.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_dropview.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_explain.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_expr.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_indexedby.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_insert.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_keywords.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_naming.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_reindex.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_replace.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_savepoint.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_select.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_transaction.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_update.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_vacuum.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/lang_with.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/pragma.html
  Doc/Extra/Core/syntaxdiagrams.html
  Doc/Extra/Include/
  Doc/Extra/Include/ndoc.css
  Doc/Extra/Provider/
  Doc/Extra/Provider/dbfactorysupport.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/designer.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/environment.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/lang_types.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/limitations.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/optimizing.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/syntax.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/version.html
  Doc/Extra/Provider/welcome.html
  Doc/SQLite.NET.chm
  Doc/SQLite.NET.hhc
  Doc/SQLite.NET.hhp
  Doc/SQLite.NET.ndoc
  exclude_bin.txt
︙︙
Changes to readme.htm.
︙︙
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217
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221
222

<h2><b>Version History</b></h2>

<p>
    <b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b>
</p>
<ul>
    <li>Updated to <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html">SQLite 3.8.3</a>.</li>

    <li>Add support for <a href="http://entityframework.codeplex.com/">Entity Framework 6</a>.</li>
    <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to [e87af1d06a].</li>
    <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
    <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
    <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
    <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
    <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to [a47eff2c71].</li>








>








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222
223

<h2><b>Version History</b></h2>

<p>
    <b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b>
</p>
<ul>
    <li>Updated to <a href="http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html">SQLite 3.8.3</a>.</li>
    <li>Refresh all included SQLite core library documentation (e.g. SQL syntax).</li>
    <li>Add support for <a href="http://entityframework.codeplex.com/">Entity Framework 6</a>.</li>
    <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to [e87af1d06a].</li>
    <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
    <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
    <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
    <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
    <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to [a47eff2c71].</li>
︙︙
Changes to www/news.wiki. 
1
2
3
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5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16

<title>News</title>

<b>Version History</b>

<p>
    <b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b>
</p>
<ul>
    <li>Updated to [http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html|SQLite 3.8.3].</li>

    <li>Add support for [http://entityframework.codeplex.com/|Entity Framework 6].</li>
    <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to [e87af1d06a].</li>
    <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
    <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
    <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
    <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
    <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to [a47eff2c71].</li>










>








1
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3
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10
11
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17

<title>News</title>

<b>Version History</b>

<p>
    <b>1.0.91.0 - February XX, 2014 <font color="red">(release scheduled)</font></b>
</p>
<ul>
    <li>Updated to [http://www.sqlite.org/releaselog/3_8_3.html|SQLite 3.8.3].</li>
    <li>Refresh all included SQLite core library documentation (e.g. SQL syntax).</li>
    <li>Add support for [http://entityframework.codeplex.com/|Entity Framework 6].</li>
    <li>Add support for per-connection mappings between type names and DbType values. Pursuant to [e87af1d06a].</li>
    <li>Modify the namespace used for all internal classes in the System.Data.SQLite.Linq assembly.&nbsp;<b>** Potentially Incompatible Change **</b></li>
    <li>Add SQLiteCompileOptions and InteropCompileOptions properties to the SQLiteConnection class to return the compile-time options for the SQLite core library and interop assembly, respectively.</li>
    <li>Add BindInvariantText and ConvertInvariantText connection flags to force the invariant culture to be used when converting parameter values to/from strings.</li>
    <li>Add NoConnectionPool and UseConnectionPool connection flags to disable or enable connection pooling by default.</li>
    <li>Modify handling of the design-time components installer to run Visual Studio <b>devenv.exe /setup</b> after installing the package. This appears to be necessary in some circumstances for Visual Studio 2013. Pursuant to [a47eff2c71].</li>
︙︙